Posts in category: Case Study

About the author:

Aditri Nischal is a diligent and enthusiastic student from Bangalore, currently enrolled in the 11^th grade at Stonehill International School. Growing up in a supportive and intellectually stimulating environment, she has developed a keen interest in justice and human rights advocacy. Aditri aspires to pursue an undergraduate degree in political science with a vision to contribute meaningfully to the legal field.

Abstract

The focus of this research study will be on India’s critical problems in curbing cybercrime within its existing legal frameworks and law enforcement capabilities. While some existing laws such as the IT Act (2000) and the Indian Penal Code are brought into question for their insufficiency in combating modern cyber threats, many other laws are questioned for their inadequacy in dealing with cyber threats. Due to the unavailability of experts, poor resource allocation and grey areas in determining jurisdiction, police operations currently have limited capability in cybercrime investigations. Dealing with digital proof is also a factor as a result of unsteady and multifaceted arrangement of digital formats. This paper calls for the legislation of a new Cybersecurity Act, an increase of the skill levels of law enforcement officials and international cooperation through the use of new technologies such as blockchain and AI.

Introduction

The digital era allowed nations to reach an unrivaled level of connectivity and technological evolution, giving people the power to transform every area of our lives. However, individuals, businesses, and nations have also become targets of new kinds of crimes. A new kind of transnational threat, cybercrime has quickly developed an ability to inflict damage on individuals’ privacy, firms’ financial security, and even countries’ security. India, which is a prominent participant in the digital economy with an expanding internet penetration, has become the prime victim of cybercrime (Ganesh Makam, 2023). National Crime Records Bureau showed that over 52,974 cybercrime cases were reported, a 14.8% increase from the previous year (Scholarworks and Tientcheu, 2021).

Organizations and businesses are exposed to credible damages associated with cyberattacks such as breakdown-related issues, damage to reputation and financial costs. The Computer Emergency Response Team of India (CERT-In) summed up that there were 14.63 lakhs of cybersecurity incidents that occurred in the year 2021 alone (Cremer et al., 2022). Law enforcement demands advanced training, technology, and international collaboration. Cybercrime investigations and prosecutions need effective electronic evidence handling due to its volatility, complexity and comparability. 

This study examines India’s cybercrime space and suggests solutions to strengthen law enforcement’s electronic evidence management and regulations (Kiritbhai et al., 2023). It will examine cybercrime legislation, law enforcement capabilities, and electronic evidence management. The study provides practical recommendations and emphasizes the necessity for a coordinated response to this important policy challenge through legal reforms and amendments, advanced training for police forces, technology, and international collaboration.

Legal Framework for Combating Cybercrime in India

Existing cybercrime laws in India are mostly subsumed within the IT Act, 2000 (IT Act) and the Indian Penal Code (IPC). By enacting the IT Act, we get a framework for crimes committed in cyberspace and the security of online transactions and data. However, one noticeable trait of the IT Act is its wide range. It covers many internal sections of cybercrime related to unauthorized access to cyber networks, theft of electronic data, and computer crimes such as hacking, phishing, and identity theft.

While the IT ACT has advantages it is not meant to be a choke point for cybercriminals who are determined to master dangerous cybercrimes such as cyber terrorism and ransomware attacks. Further, this sets the procedural features which entail e-evidence, cross-border investigations and so forth, on hold for improved notice. The Indian Penal Code (IPC) although not having an exclusive application for cybercrime, presents provisions that can be used to punish certain crimes committed through digital means such as fraud, cheating and harassment. 

Though the IPC is applied in cybercrime scenarios with limited success, it was introduced earlier than the current times of electronic crimes which is why it is not compatible with the unique challenges of technology attacks today. One of the weaknesses of the present legal architecture is the absence of synchronization between the IT Act and the IPC, which has the possibility of incurring contradiction or confusion in its operation (Peters, 2022). Moreover, the law lacks provisions relating to interoperation and coordination on the international platform which is necessary to curb the borderless nature of cyber-crimes. Although existing laws have substantially contributed to combating cybercrime, an up-to-date, comprehensive legal framework is required for actively confronting cyberthreats today (Peters, 2022). 

Filling up the gaps and shortcomings of existing laws, multi-national cooperation, and strengthening the procedures of electronic evidence & extraterritorial investigations are indispensable measures for the development of a legal structure to counter cybercrime in India. India should alter and restructure its legislative framework to handle increasing cyber threats and challenges. By adopting certain amendments and reforms, India can build a sturdy and complete legal regime that handles the emerging cybercrime scenario, bolsters cooperation between nations and hardens the cybersecurity stance of the country.

Policy Recommendations

Law enforcement bodies necessarily face tremendous difficulties in cybercrime investigations and prosecution because digital technology is complex and fast-paced.  Expertise is one of the main difficulties that law enforcement agents currently face in India. The investigation of cybercrime demands a high level of expertise and skills in digital forensics, network analysis, and cybersecurity which is missing in policing in India. Insufficient resources such as the lack of sufficient budget, obsolete tools, and personnel shortages are roadblocks that challenge agencies’ efforts (Katharina Kiener Manu, 2019). 

There is a sharp increase in the volume and complexity of digital evidence, which is coupled with the need for specialized hardware and software.  Another difficulty that can be identified is the issue of jurisdiction since cybercrime is often cross-border. Deciding on the right areas of jurisdiction along with the coordination of more than one agency or country is a very complex and time-consuming process that could lead to delays in investigations and prosecutions (Boadu, 2022).

Moreover, acquiring and storing electronic proof is a crucial part of cybercrime probation. However, its uniqueness poses some specific problems. The problematic aspect of digital data is its unstable nature, the chance of copying or destruction, and the necessity to possess specific instruments and approaches. It is difficult to guarantee proof of authenticity and admissibility. The use of electronic evidence in court sometimes also can be problematic. Judges and juries may be uninformed in terms of understanding complex digital evidence. They often need experts and illustrations of the relevance of the evidence. Solving these problems is vital for law enforcement to detect the cybercrime phenomenon (Sarkar, 2023; Shukla, 2023).

Creating a law enforcement cybercrime unit with highly trained digital forensics, network analysis, and cybersecurity professionals is a tactic that can help law enforcement fight cybercrime (Ochieng, 2023). These units should have the latest forensic software, decryption tools and data analysis platforms to investigate and prosecute cybercrime cases.  Encouraging law enforcement, commercial companies, and university research institutes to share information is another effective measure. Working with cyber security corporations, technological companies, and research groups would provide law enforcement with cutting-edge information, resources, and threat intelligence to better cybercrime prevention and police. 

Furthermore, providing and maintaining adequate capacity learning programs and constant training facilities to improve the level of skill and effective ability of law enforcement officials is crucial (Bondarenko et al., 2020). Recurrent exercises, workshops, and certifications would lead to the coverage of subjects such as new cyber threats, proper handling of digital evidence, and the use of modern investigation techniques and solutions. Collaborating with technical schools and business authorities will support the principle of creating and donating these training systems, foster international cooperation and free exchange of information among law enforcement departments within countries as well as internationally.

Cybercrime tends to pass country borders. Thus the development of joint efforts and involvement of resources, intelligence sharing, and effective coordination is required to overcome interconnected cybercriminal organizations (Wang et al. 2020). Through the adoption of these mechanisms, law enforcement bodies can become even more capable of addressing the increasing cybercrimes and, of course, people, businesses, and national security interests which are in the digital age.

The handling of electronic evidence has its challenges which mark the major complex features of digital data. Volatility in digital data (which can be accidentally removed, altered, or corrupted) represents one of the main obstacles to introducing it as evidence in a court of law (Chikuruwo and Gamundani, 2023). This erratic nature of big data warrants specific tools and methods for the acquisition, conservation, and analysis to help maintain the chain of custody and avoid loss or accidental modification. The problem of a huge variety of digital devices and electronic file formats is also highly important. 

Moreover, law enforcement agencies must acquire tools to handle, process, and analyze different forms of digital evidence like emails, SMS messages, social media data, and multimedia files that are coming from different sources including personal smartphones, computers, and surveillance systems. This calls for technology, knowledge, and procedures that can properly be used towards such ends. The issue of tampering or destroying evidence occurs, as cybercriminals will seek to alter or eliminate electronic evidence to hide their tracks (Chikuruwo and Gamundani, 2023). 

The application of significant security practices, such as encryption, access controls, and maintenance of audit trails is imperative to preserve the integrity of electronic evidence and ensure a secure chain of custody. Consequently, solving these problems implies the adoption of a complex strategy (Anand, 2016). For instance, training personnel in advanced forensic techniques, applying the latest security protocols, building partnerships between police, technology companies, and courts become vital to the law enforcement process.

A country that has used similar tools to achieve the same objectives is known to be the United States, with their cybercrime units, information sharing partnerships, training programs, electronic evidence management, use of advanced technologies and the implementation of secure forensic labs (Bondarenko et al., 2020). Through the establishment of various units within law enforcement agencies to combat cybercrime, such as the cyber division in the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) focused on investigating and preventing cyber threats, the units consisting of highly trained professionals in digital forensics, network analysis and cyber security are equipped with data analysis platforms and forensic software. Even the coalition partnerships between the United States and other law enforcement agencies, commercial companies and academic institutions have been facilitated in such a manner that collaboration and information sharing on cybercrime prevention and investigation has taken place (Manu, 2019).

The US also provides extensive training programs with all-encompassing resources that aid in the enhancement of skills of law enforcement officials to handle cybercrime cases and digital evidence. The FBI’s Cyber Training Academy offers courses on digital forensics, cyber threat intelligence, and incident response (Cremer, 2022). Additionally, collaborations with universities and technical schools help to ensure that law enforcement personnel receive up-to-date training on emerging cyber threats and investigative techniques. In terms of electronic evidence management, the U.S. has implemented robust protocols and standards to ensure the integrity and admissibility of digital evidence in court. Guidelines such as those provided by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence (SWGDE) help to establish best practices for acquiring, preserving, and analyzing digital evidence (Sarkar and Shukla, 2023). The U.S. also maintains dedicated digital forensics laboratories with strict access controls and standardized procedures. By adopting these strategies and leveraging technological advancements, the United States has made significant strides in enhancing its law enforcement capabilities and electronic evidence management, serving as a model for other countries facing similar challenges in combating cybercrime.

Conclusion

This research paper has pointed out the issue of the legal system and law enforcement of India in terms of combating cybercrime and the collection of digital evidence. It contains these recommendations: adoption of a cyber security law, modification of traditional laws to take into consideration emerging trends, fostering international cooperation, and setting up specialized cybercrime units in the law enforcement sector (Makam, 2023). A coordinated effort that comprises legislation reforms, institution-building programs, and an embracement of the best practices is vital for addressing this policy challenge.  Through these preventive measures, India can gain confidence among its people, strengthen their security, and make the digital space a more friendly environment for innovations and economic development. The application of upcoming technologies like blockchain and AI would be useful, as the development of more refined forensic methods and tools, and harmonization of cybercrime laws and regulations from country to country. Thus, by taking proactive measures to strengthen its cybersecurity profile, India safeguards its digital infrastructure and prevents its citizens as well as businesses from cybercrime to position itself as a leader in the global combat against cybercrime.

References

• Anand S. 2016. Analysis of Indian Legal Framework for Cyber Crimes. Lawdocsin. [accessed  2024 Apr 1]. https://lawdocs.in/blog/analysis-of-indian-legal-framework-for-cyber-crimes.
• Boadu E. 2022. A framework for promoting health and safety through procurement in the construction industry in developing countries: A case of Ghana. Accessed from: https://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/entities/publication/7a00fecd-022d-4141-b102-eef1a10b4aad.
• Bondarenko V, Okhrimenko I, Yevdokimova O, Sydorchuk N, Dzhezhyk O, Boichuk I,  Kalashnik N, Kozlovets M, Slyusar V, Pavlenko V, et al. 2020. Professional skills and competencies of the future police officers. International Journal of Applied Exercise Physiology. 9(5):35–43. [accessed 2024 Apr 2]. http://eprints.zu.edu.ua/32751.
• Chikuruwo SR, Gamundani A. 2023. The Effects of Volatile Features on Digital Evidence  Preservation. SSRN Electronic Journal. 1(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4332846.
• Chin K. 2023 Mar 2. Top Cybersecurity Regulations in India [Updated 2023] | UpGuard.  Accessed from: https://www.upguard.com/blog/cybersecurity-regulations-india.
• Cremer F, Sheehan B, Fortmann M, Kia AN, Mullins M, Murphy F, Materne S. 2022. Cyber risk and cybersecurity: A systematic review of data availability. The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance – Issues and Practice. 47(3).  Accessed from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8853293/.
• Ganesh Makam. 2023. Cybercrime and Electronic Evidence in India: a Comprehensive Analysis. Social Science Research Network. 1(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4475784.
• Katharina Kiener Manu. 2019. Cybercrime Module 6 Key Issues: Handling of Digital Evidence. Accessed from: https://www.unodc.org/e4j/zh/cybercrime/module-6/key issues/handling-of-digital-evidence.html.
• Kosseff J. 2023. Upgrading Cybersecurity Law. Houston Law Review. 61(1):51–90. [accessed  2024 Jan 21]. Accessed from: https://houstonlawreview.org/article/90792-upgrading-cybersecurity-law.
• Kwan Yuen Iu, Vanessa Man-Yi Wong. 2023. The trans-national cybercrime court: towards a new harmonization of cyber law regime in ASEAN. International Cybersecurity Law Review.  1(1). Accessed from doi:https://doi.org/10.1365/s43439-023-00105-x.
• Ochieng BW. 2023. Enhancing Cybercrime Investigation Effectiveness: A Multifaceted Analysis Of Information Technology Tools, Digital Evidence Quality, And Law Enforcer Security Measures. Kcauacke. 2(1). [accessed 2024 Mar 29]. Doi: https://repository.kcau.ac.ke/handle/123456789/1533. 
• Patel BN. 2020 Jul 2. National Security of India and International Law. [accessed  2024 Apr 2]. Accessed from: https://brill.com/display/title/56735.
• Patil H, Ravshish Kaur Kohli, Puri S, Puri P. 2024. Potential applicability of blockchain technology in the maintenance of chain of custody in forensic casework. Egyptian Journal of Forensic Sciences. 14(1). doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41935-023-00383-w.
• Peters GC. 2022 Mar 2. S.3600 – 117th Congress (2021-2022): Strengthening American Cybersecurity Act of 2022. Congreso. Accessed from: https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate bill/3600.
• Sarkar G, Shukla SK. 2023. Behavioral analysis of cybercrime: Paving the way for effective policing strategies. Journal of Economic Criminology. 2(1):100034.  doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconc.2023.100034. 

About the author:

Parth is an industrious and ambitious student, with a strong sense of compassion and curiosity that always has him looking for innovative ways to impact those around him. Studying in the 10th grade at Hill Spring International School, Parth currently looks to enhance his understanding of public policy as he gears up to pursue an undergraduate program along the same lines.  Having spent his life in a metropolitan city, Parth looks to foster a deeper understanding of rural culture, and the impact of policy at the grassroots.

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic presented significant challenges globally, with India facing a severe crisis during the 2021 second wave. Kerala, despite its high population density and economic vulnerabilities, notably emerged as a successful model in pandemic management. The state’s proactive measures included early containment, extensive testing, and efficient contact tracing, underpinned by a robust health infrastructure enhanced by initiatives like the People’s Plan Campaign and the Aardram Mission. Kerala utilized digital technology for effective communication and surveillance, expanded telemedicine to reduce hospital strain, and ensured community support through initiatives like community kitchens. The research paper highlights Kerala’s challenges, such as economic impacts on tourism and managing expatriate returns and concludes with policy recommendations for broader pandemic preparedness. These recommendations advocate for Kerala’s approach, emphasizing decentralized governance, digital innovation, and community engagement as key to effective health crisis management.

Introduction

COVID-19, the disease caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, had a profound impact on India. The nation faced daunting challenges, including the massive second wave in 2021 that strained its healthcare infrastructure to the breaking point, leading to shortages of medical supplies, hospital beds, and oxygen (Bari, 2023). The government and public health authorities responded with nationwide lockdowns, extensive vaccination drives, and public health campaigns to mitigate the spread of the virus.

Kerala’s handling of COVID-19 was notable for its early and aggressive response. The state implemented strict containment measures, widespread testing, and an efficient contact tracing system. Kerala’s health infrastructure, bolstered by community participation, panchayat-level as well as urban public awareness campaigns, played a key role in managing the pandemic’s impact effectively, setting a model for others (Besley et al, 2007).

Policies that Kerala Implemented

As Kerala has one of the highest population densities in India, social distancing measures more challenging to implement effectively, especially in urban areas. Despite having one of the best healthcare infrastructures in India, the pandemic strained Kerala’s healthcare system (Pilla, 2021). The state faced challenges in increasing ICU beds, ventilators, and medical personnel to deal with the surge in cases. Furthermore, a significant portion of Kerala’s population works abroad, especially in the Gulf countries. Managing the return of these expatriates, who were among the hardest hit by the pandemic, posed a logistical and healthcare challenge. The state had to ensure quarantine facilities and testing for a large number of returnees (Aksoy, Eichengreen and Saka, 2020). The pandemic severely impacted Kerala’s economy, particularly the tourism sector, which is a significant source of income for the state. Lockdowns and travel restrictions led to massive losses in this sector. Additionally, the state had to support those who lost their jobs or were economically affected due to the pandemic.

The pandemic also disrupted the education sector, with schools and colleges closed for extended periods. Kerala had to rapidly adapt to online education, which was challenging due to issues like unequal access to the internet and digital devices among students. Kerala is also home to a large number of migrant workers from other Indian states. Ensuring their health, safety, and well-being during lockdowns and restrictions was a significant concern (Bhuyan, 2021). The pandemic and the ensuing lockdowns led to increased reports of mental health issues among the population due to isolation, economic hardships, and health anxieties. Addressing these concerns required expanding mental health services and public awareness campaigns.

A landmark initiative in Kerala is the People’s Plan Campaign, launched in the mid-1990s, which empowered Panchayats with greater financial resources and autonomy (Udayakumar and Taylor, 2021). This initiative aimed at decentralizing power to the Panchayats, allowing them to play a significant role in planning and implementing development projects tailored to local needs. It emphasized participatory planning, where community members directly contribute to decision-making processes regarding important issues like health (Kazmin, 2020).

With the Panchayats being a significant player when it came to the people’s, the state’s prior experiences with disease outbreaks and natural disasters, such as the Nipah virus outbreak and floods, became instrumental in shaping its preparedness and response strategies to COVID-19 (Sohel et al, 2022). Community Health Workers (CHWs), volunteers, Kudumbashree (Kerala’s government-run women’s self-help group program), and newly formed Rapid Response Teams (RRTs) at the ward level were crucial in containment efforts (Pandey, 2020). These teams were formally constituted by the state to supervise and monitor pandemic mitigation efforts, trained by LSGs and staff at Primary Health Care facilities (PHCFs) under the broader supervision of elected LSG members​.

Moreover, the state’s health system reforms, particularly the transformation of Primary Health Centres (PHCs) into Family Health Centres (FHCs) with extended hours and improved service delivery, were significant. Key to these reforms was the “The Kerala Aardram Mission,” launched in 2016 by the Government of Kerala (Pilla, 2021). This mission’s objective was to transform the state’s public health sector to ensure quality health care services are accessible, affordable, and equitable to all residents.

Once Covid-19 hit Kerala, the authorities enabled early release of technical guidelines on contact tracing, quarantine, isolation, hospitalization, infection prevention and control, and extensive capacity-building for all cadres of health and other interlinked departments. Digital technology played a pivotal role in Kerala’s pandemic response, leveraging the state’s high rates of computer and internet access. Digital tools were used for communication, surveillance, clinical management, and non-clinical support, enhancing routine health services delivery (Udayakumar and Taylor, 2021). The state provided widespread information through various digital platforms, including a COVID-19-specific dashboard and mobile applications, to keep the public informed and engaged. Kerala’s key strategies also included surveillance activities, ensuring good quality quarantine, intelligent testing strategies, uninterrupted treatment services, community participation, proactive care for the elderly and people with comorbidities, and education and social mobilization for behavioral change.

Kerala’s contact tracing was meticulous, with health workers mapping the travel history of infected individuals to identify potential exposure sites (Chattopadhyay and Duflo, 2004). The state used apps like ‘GoK Direct’ and Covid-19 Jagratha portal to help citizens self-report symptoms and receive timely guidance. To reduce hospital visits, Kerala expanded telemedicine, allowing patients to consult doctors online. This minimized the risk of virus transmission and eased the load on healthcare facilities. Operated by local bodies with volunteer support, Kerala launched community kitchens. These provided free meals to the needy, demonstrating an integrated approach to health and well-being.

Recommendations

Kerala can be used as an excellent example of a system of governance that was designed to work well at the grassroots level. Especially, when it comes to critical and time sensitive issues like the spread of the pandemic. The following are some of the policy recommendations that can be implemented across India for better pandemic preparedness:

1. Kerala’s contact tracing process was thorough and swift, involving an extensive network of public health officials, community health workers, and volunteers. The state effectively utilized digital platforms and mobile applications to streamline the tracing process, ensuring prompt identification and isolation of contacts (Mullick and Patnaik, 2022). This meticulous approach, combined with a strong public health infrastructure and community participation, made Kerala’s contact tracing more efficient and comprehensive than many other parts of India. At the national level, having a more stringent contact tracing process like Kerala’s would help India control future outbreaks especially through secondary or tertiary contacts.
2. The panchayats in Kerala played a pivotal role in the state’s COVID-19 response by localizing government initiatives. They were instrumental in enforcing quarantine measures, facilitating widespread testing, and managing community kitchens to ensure food security for the vulnerable (Chattopadhyay and Duflo, 2004). Additionally, they coordinated with health officials for contact tracing and mobilized local volunteers for awareness campaigns, showcasing an effective model of decentralized governance and community engagement in public health crises. This process followed by Kerala could be key for India’s preparation for future outbreaks. With more than 68% of Indians residing in villages, empowering the panchayats is significant to pandemic readiness.
3. Kerala implemented stringent travel restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic, including state border controls, mandatory RT-PCR tests for incoming travelers, quarantine for those testing positive, and a pass system for inter-district travel. A strict program like Kerala’s “Covid Jagratha” form would be needed to stem the flow of people whose health status would otherwise not be recorded (Biswas, 2021).
4. Kerala’s panchayats played a critical role in extending the state’s testing strategy to the grassroots level. They organized mobile testing units and camps in collaboration with local health departments to ensure accessibility to testing facilities, especially in remote areas. Empowering volunteers beyond healthcare workers will ensure that necessary testing can take place. This would also allow detection of diseases before it becomes fatal for infected patients.
5. Kerala’s panchayats efficiently mobilized local resources to ensure the widespread distribution and administration of COVID-19 vaccines. They identified and set up vaccination centers in accessible locations, coordinated with health workers for smooth operations, and launched information campaigns to address vaccine hesitancy. Their grassroots approach was crucial in covering diverse populations, including the elderly and those in remote areas, contributing significantly to Kerala’s high vaccination rates.

Conclusion

In summary, Kerala’s adept management of the COVID-19 pandemic exemplifies the effectiveness of proactive planning, community engagement, and decentralized governance in tackling public health crises (Sohel et al, 2022). Facing challenges such as high population density and economic dependency on sectors like tourism, Kerala utilized a robust public health infrastructure and participatory governance, highlighted by the People’s Plan Campaign, to effectively mitigate the pandemic’s impact. Strategies like effective contact tracing, the utilization of panchayats for a localized response, stringent travel controls, widespread testing, and an inclusive vaccination campaign were pivotal.

This model, characterized by its emphasis on equity, accessibility, and community participation, not only curtailed the virus’s spread but also prioritized the welfare of vulnerable populations. Kerala’s approach demonstrates the critical need for preparedness through investments in public health, technology, and community mechanisms before emergencies arise (Anuj and Shashwata Sahu, 2022). As the world faces ongoing and future public health challenges, Kerala’s strategies offer a blueprint for developing resilient healthcare systems capable of equitable and humane responses to pandemics. Adopting these lessons can enhance global health security by emphasizing grassroots governance and the significant role of community involvement.

References

• Bari, M.E., Dey, P. (2023). Local Governance in India During a Pandemic: A Case for Granting Agency to Municipal Governments. In: Singh, A. (eds) International Handbook of Disaster Research. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8388-7_66
• Mullick, M., & Patnaik, A. (2022). Pandemic management, citizens and the Indian Smart cities: Reflections from the right to the smart city and the digital divide. City, Culture and Society, 30, 100474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccs.2022.100474
• Besley, T., Pande, R., & Rao, V. (2007). Political economy of panchayats in South India. Economic and Political Weekly, 661–666.
• Chattopadhyay, R., & Duflo, E. (2004). Impact of reservation in Panchayati Raj: Evidence from a nationwide randomised experiment. Economic and Political Weekly, 979–986.
• Aksoy C. G., Eichengreen B., & Saka O. (2020, November 16). Vaccine Challenges. VOX, CEPR Policy Portal. https://voxeu.org/article/vaccine-challenges
• Bhuyan A. (2021). Experts criticise India’s complacency over COVID-19. The Lancet, 397(10285), 1611–1612.
• Biswas S. (2021). Coronavirus: Is the epidemic finally coming to an end in India? BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-56037565
• Kazmin A. (2020). Modi stumbles: India’s deepening coronavirus crisis. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/53d946cf-d4c2-4cc4-9411-1d5bb3566e83.
• Pandey G. (2020). Coronavirus in India: Desperate migrant workers trapped in lockdown. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-52360757
• Pilla V. (2021). Fall in India’s Covid-19 case count: Is it sustainable, and why complacency is risky. Money Control. https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/business/companies/fall-in-indias-covid-19-case-count-is-it-sustainable-and-why-complacency-is-risky-6486741.html
• Udayakumar K., & Taylor A. (2021). What India needs to get through its Covid crisis. MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/05/01/1024411/what-india-needs-vaccines-covid-crisis/
• Sohel, M.S., Ehsan, S.M.A., Zaman, N.T. et al. Understanding rural local government response during COVID-19-induced lockdown: perspective from Bangladesh. SN Soc Sci 2, 216 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-022-00516-3
• Anuj and Shashwata Sahu. (2022). Healthcare System and Role of Local Self-Government During Covid-19 Pandemic in India, 5 (1) IJLMH Page 2326 – 2339. doi: https://doij.org/10.10000/IJLMH.112757

About the author:

Navya is a 12th grade student currently enrolled in Singapore American School. Having been brought up in an international school in Singapore, Navya is passionate about understanding different cultures and backgrounds, sparking her interest in the field of international relations and public policy. She will be attending Tufts University in the fall of 2024 to further her studies in this field.

Abstract

Caste, class, and gender not only influence the availability of healthcare services but also affect the quality of care received by different groups. In India, higher social strata are found to have better access to healthcare facilities, more options in choosing healthcare providers, and receive more attentive care. In contrast, lower social strata face significant barriers, including financial constraints, limited healthcare infrastructure, and systemic discrimination. This study examines the profound impact of social stratification on healthcare access and quality in India. The paper discusses how these disparities contribute to varying health outcomes and proposes policy interventions aimed at reducing inequity in healthcare provision. Recommendations include strengthening public healthcare systems, implementing anti-discrimination policies in healthcare settings, and promoting community-based health programs that are sensitive to the nuances of India’s complex social hierarchy. By addressing these key issues, the paper argues for a more equitable healthcare system that can improve overall health outcomes in India.

Introduction

Caste, class, and gender not only influence the availability of healthcare services but also affect the quality of care received by different groups. In India, higher social strata are found to have better access to healthcare facilities, more options in choosing healthcare providers, and receive more attentive care. In contrast, lower social strata face significant barriers, including financial constraints, limited healthcare infrastructure, and systemic discrimination. This study examines the profound impact of social stratification on healthcare access and quality in India. The paper discusses how these disparities contribute to varying health outcomes and proposes policy interventions aimed at reducing inequity in healthcare provision. Recommendations include strengthening public healthcare systems, implementing anti-discrimination policies in healthcare settings, and promoting community-based health programs that are sensitive to the nuances of India’s complex social hierarchy. By addressing these key issues, the paper argues for a more equitable healthcare system that can improve overall health outcomes in India.

Influence of Social Strata on Access to Healthcare Services in India

As aforementioned in the introduction section, the caste system is a prominent social structure in India and yields extensive implications on the population. While socioeconomic factors also encompass the principles from the caste system, this subsection will specifically outline the impact of socioeconomic disparities and overall affordability on access to healthcare (Malhotra, 2013). Further, it will also detail how the caste structure amplifies social inequality, and thus, the Indian population’s access to healthcare.

The caste system promotes a culture of social exclusion, particularly towards those in the lower castes. This is because being viewed as an ‘inferior’ class not only instills a subordinate mindset among individuals, but also reduces their opportunities for education, employment, and income. As a result, higher caste statuses have more advantages in the healthcare sector because they not only have more capacity to afford healthcare costs, but also more elaborate education abilities. This is where the intersection between caste and socioeconomic factors is evident. A survey presented by India’s National Sample Survey (2017-2018) emphasizes that 12% of respondents reported unmet healthcare needs, which they mainly accredited to the lack of affordable healthcare in various sections of the population. Further, there exists a slight disparity of the unmet healthcare needs between poorer and wealthier economic classes, the underlying pattern was that the burden of unmet was higher among illiterate respondents, regardless of the class disparities.  

Another form of social stratification or discrimination can occur with regard to gender, specifically known as gender stratification. While gender roles in India is linked with the caste system and socioeconomic structures, the patriarchy also has other, exclusive, negative impacts on healthcare access in India (Ali, 2021).  

India has long been notorious for its patriarchal structured society. In fact, substantiating this claim is a survey by Pew Research Center, where roughly 23% of Indians say there is a lot of discrimination against women, and a further 16% of Indian women reporting that they have personally faced discrimination. In this case, discrimination is exemplified in many different manners. From disadvantages in the employment sector to unequal representation in the political field, the implications of these existing gender barriers play a role in their access to healthcare in India.

Because the patriarchy plays a substantial role in governing the attitudes of people towards female empowerment, women are more likely to experience unequal access to resources and services such as healthcare. Within the context of India, the patriarchal ideals could be explanatory as to why girls have less access to hospital treatment and the lower rates of immunization. Moreover, in patriarchal societies, there is an emphasis on the notion that women are ‘less than men’ or subordinate in comparison to males, thus, reducing their objective value in society. As a result, a study analyzed in a PubMed article articulates that parents consult healthcare professionals more often for their sons over their daughters. Additionally, households with female newborns have also been evidenced to utilize cheaper healthcare options, whereas those with male newborns prefer private providers as they are perceived to be more effective in healthcare. Essentially, this data identifies the disparity of healthcare services households utilize to cater for their female versus male children.

To sum, these disparities are clear indicators that the patriarchy has played a substantial role in dictating the quality of healthcare required based on gender. Thus, this demonstrates how social strata can influence the decisions people in India make with regard to quality of healthcare service, and how it serves as a barrier for certain minority, which in this case is women (Borooah, 2022). Along with gender and socio-economic strata, a less direct, yet pressing form of social strata that promotes unequal access to healthcare in India is geographical disparities. This subsection will outline the urban-rural divide in India, as well as other geographical factors within specific areas that have caused obstacles in healthcare access.

It is, without a doubt, that the wealth distribution throughout India is unequal. Considering that the per capita income of the five richest states in India was 145% higher than that of the five bottom states in the early 2000s, a disparity that eventually even grew to 338% in 2017-2018, the wealth distribution is evidently unequal (Siddiqi and Nguyen, 2010). This inequity definitely arises due to differences in state budget allocations towards healthcare, disparities in private sector healthcare availability, and political priorities that are not always consistent or predictable. Therefore, the lack of investment in healthcare in lower income per capita states tend to not have as much investment directed towards healthcare, and thus, diminishing the overall quality or effectiveness of the services provided within these states.

Given the imbalance of healthcare resource allocation and supply of medical facilities across the states of India, one consequential difficulty that arises is that of transportation (Nayar, 2007). As individuals that reside in states with lower quality of healthcare are also those that earn a lower income per capita, they face both explicit and implicit costs associated with traveling out-of-state for higher quality healthcare. Solely due to this geographic limitation, lower-income individuals are faced with inability to access the necessary healthcare, thus, amplifying their existing inequality.

Current Policy Framework

With regard to social strata and healthcare, India is making some progress towards lessening the harsh impact on certain groups through specifically governmental initiatives and plans. This subsection will detail both these areas of policy and identify their effectiveness as well as missing gaps.

Firstly, the Indian government revised their initial National Health Policy (NHP) from 2002 with the goal of attaining the highest possible level of health and well-being for all age cohorts. Essentially, through incentivizing local manufacturing in rural areas, as well as reducing the costs of healthcare services, targeting a wide-range of income status individuals (Selvaraj et al, 2021). Despite these ambitious goals, the implementation of this plan, thus, negating the original goals of the plan. One of the key reasons as to why it didn’t implement as effectively as the Indian government had hoped, inadequate funding that led to lack of quality medical infrastructure didn’t allow the policy to reach its full potential. Further, the disparity of quality infrastructure between areas further amplified the difficulties faced by individuals already trivialized with geographical barriers.

Secondly, the government of India had launched the National Rural Health Mission NRHM in 2005 in 18 different states across India. The act placed an emphasis on bolstering the healthcare quality, particularly infrastructure, services, and human resources in specific rural areas. Therefore, this plan was put out with the goal of reducing disparities of healthcare access between rural and urban populations in India. In order to attain their goal, the NRHM implemented a committee focused on village health and sanitation, as well as partnered with non-governmental organizations in the private sector to provide more hands on deck and quicken their results. However, like the earlier mentioned policy, the NRHM has also lacked proper community engagement and efficient monitoring to successfully implement their plan.

Additionally, in 2018, the Indian government had announced the creation of hundreds of health and wellness, implemented with the goal of delivering primary healthcare closer to people in need. The Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY) of 2018 plan was essentially a benefit cover, health insurance scheme, in order to mitigate extreme expenditure on medical treatment which leads to a mass amount of Indian into poverty. However, reaching this goal requires proper implementation and focused emphasis on groups more prone to becoming impoverished (Siddiqi and Nguyen, 2010). Not only did the plan surmount controversy for facing challenges in relation to abuse and fraud, but also there was a lack of awareness or community engagement for citizens to be able to reap the benefits of this plan’s actions. Despite the plan encompassing costs of medical treatments, transportation and other non-covered service costs are not included, therefore initiating existing inequity.

To sum up, while there are a variety of actions aimed towards this problem made by the government, the necessary steps have not been met. Specifically, transportation costs and lack of community engagement are underlying patterns throughout the above-mentioned initiatives that have not been properly taken into account (Nayar, 2007). Therefore, should the Indian government put more priority and care into their programs as well as adequate funding, they would likely yield more effective and beneficial outcomes for the targeted population and lessen disparities and inequities.

Policy Recommendations

Based on the above gaps identified in existing policy and the root problems outlined above, the purpose of this paper is to bridge these gaps through proposed policy recommendations. This subsection will highlight potential recommendations for improvement.

The underlying issue remains that of stigmatization. Therefore, in order to destigmatize and reduce the marginalization of some groups in India, an extremely effective long-term measure would be to increase the population’s awareness of this problem. The continuation of patriarchal ideals and the caste structure both root from lack of proper education, thus, it is paramount to introduce community engagement educational campaigns in regions in India that most promote these harmful norms (Arun, 2023). This is comparable to the work of ASHA (Accredited Social Health Activists) workers, and can make substantial progress towards gauging communities and reducing the spread of detrimental misconceptions that restrict certain people’s access to healthcare services.

Similar to educational measures, empowerment measures can be implemented through health literacy programs. Essentially, these programs would go hand in hand to the campaigns mentioned in the earlier solution, where individuals would learn more about the importance of health and their rights within the healthcare system. Oftentimes the discrimination they face can reduce their desire to receive quality healthcare (Seth et al, 2017). Therefore, these measures will empower them to realize their rights, and thus, promote equitable healthcare. As addressed earlier in the paper, a major component that reduces certain populations’ access to healthcare services is the difficulty of affording transport. Therefore, a plan that could be imposed is to begin implementing community health workers. Through establishing medical educational programs for women and caste members that have been otherwise discriminated in the employment sector, this would grant them a job opportunity as well as promote more accessible healthcare services within communities (Bambra, 2020). Further, another convenience recommendation is to partner with civil society organizations and hospitals to instill efficient medicinal delivery programs. For example, a telephone helpline so that certain individuals to call to make a free delivery request for medicine to avoid them having to travel in and out of state or far distances (Cowling, 2014).

The Path Forward

From this paper, it is clear that some individuals have restricted access to healthcare based on their social strata in India. More specifically, the three key barriers or identifications of social strata in this paper are caste system, the patriarchy, and geographical disparities. Current government interventions around addressing these issues have made little progress for redressing societal norms and discrimination.

Therefore, this paper proposed policy recommendations to bridge the gaps that remain in the existing government schemes. Policymakers can now take into account the major concern of discrimination that exists as a barrier to healthcare services (Borooah, 2022). Especially when realizing the catastrophic revelations that the COVID pandemic revealed, policymakers can take this awareness and be more prepared and put more emphasis on the geographical disparities that marginalize individuals. Still, this paper does come with limitations. The paper generalized India as a whole, and focusing on one specific region or state would have likely yielded more effective policy recommendations. Further, the degrees of social strata playing a role on access to healthcare differ depending on the prevalence of the caste system. However, despite these limitations, the large literature synthesized, and patterns drawn prove the recommendations useful with regard to this topic.

References

• Ali, Istikhar. (2021). Social Stratification among Muslims and its Implications for Access to Health Services: An Exploratory Study in Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh. Journal of Political Sciences & Public Affairs. 09. 1-5.
• Arun, A., & Prabhu, M. P. (2023). Social Determinants of Health in Rural Indian Women & Effects on Intervention Participation. BMC Public Health, 23(1), 921. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-15743-3
• Bambra C, Riordan R, Ford J, et al. (2020). The COVID-19 Pandemic and Health Inequalities. Journal of Epidemiol & Community Health;74:964-968.
• Malhotra, C., & Do, Y. K. (2013). Socio-economic disparities in health system responsiveness in India. Health Policy and Planning, 28(2), 197–205. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czs051
• Cowling, K., Dandona, R. & Dandona, L. (2014) Social determinants of health in India: progress and inequities across states. International Journal for Equity in Health 13, 88. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-014-0088-0
• Nayar, K Rajasekharan. (2007). Social Exclusion, Caste & Health: A Review Based on the Social Determinants Framework. The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 126. 355-63.
• Selvaraj, S., Karan, A.K., Mao, W. et al. Did the Poor Gain from India’s Health Policy Interventions? Evidence from Benefit-Incidence Analysis, 2004–2018. The Indian Journal of Medical Research 20, 159 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-021-01489-0
• Chauhan V, Dumka N, Hannah E, Ahmed T, Kotwal A. (2022). Recent Initiatives for Transforming Healthcare in India: A Political Economy of Health Framework Analysis. Journal of Global Health Economics and Policy. doi:10.52872/001c.34300
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• Siddiqi, A., & Nguyen, Q. C. (2010). A cross-national comparative perspective on racial inequities in health: the USA versus Canada. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health (1979-), 64(1), 29–35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20721128
• Seth, A., Tomar, S., Singh, K. et al. Differential Effects of Community Health Worker Visits Across Social and Economic Groups in Uttar Pradesh, India: a Link Between Social Inequities and Health Disparities. International Journal for Equity in Health 16, 46 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-017-0538-6

About the author:

Veruschka Pandey is a 10^th grade student studying in The International School Bangalore (TISB). She is a published author of the book ‘Tween Twilight’. As a child author from the age of 12, her articles have been featured in the Times Of India, Deccan Herald and Outlook Magazine. A social activist with a keen passion for public health, she leads the project ‘Suryanayak’, a mass movement on empowering ASHA workers in rural India by training them in CPR. She has been featured on Aaj Tak news channel for this work. Veruschka is working towards positive impacts in the field of public health through research and field projects.

Abstract

India’s rising incidence of pediatric diabetes presents a significant public health challenge, prompting a critical examination of the existing policy frameworks designed to manage and mitigate this disease among children. This research paper systematically reviews India’s health policies, regulatory guidelines, and intervention strategies specific to pediatric diabetes. It evaluates the effectiveness of these policies in screening, diagnosing, and treating juvenile diabetes, and assesses their alignment with international best practices. Key findings suggest that while India has made considerable strides in increasing awareness and access to diabetes care for children, significant gaps remain in early diagnosis, rural healthcare delivery, and affordable access to essential medicines and technologies. The paper advocates for a multidisciplinary approach involving healthcare providers, policymakers, and community organizations to create a cohesive and sustainable strategy against pediatric diabetes in India.

Introduction

India, often referred to as the ‘diabetes capital’ of the world is home to the largest population of children globally. Regrettably, this accolade extends to pediatric diabetes, a condition that carries a significant and growing burden within the country. India boasts the second-highest number of diabetics globally, surpassed only by China (Kalra, Sanjay, and Mudita Dhingra, 2018). But a disproportionate focus on adult diabetes, especially the more prevalent type 2 diabetes, has cast a shadow over the critical issue of pediatric diabetes, particularly type 1 diabetes.

The statistics underscore the urgency and criticality of the situation. Presently, India grapples with nearly 95,600 cases of type 1 diabetes among children below 14 years, with an additional 15,900 fresh cases emerging annually within the same age group (Kumar, 2015). These numbers serve as an unequivocal and undeniable reminder that the pediatric diabetes landscape in India demands immediate and concerted attention from policymakers, healthcare providers, and society at large.

As every parent worldwide grapples with concerns about their child’s nutrition, the spectre of pediatric diabetes casts a unique shadow. Today, it is estimated that approximately 98,000 children in India have been diagnosed with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus, formerly known as juvenile diabetes or pediatric diabetes (Gomber et al, 2022). In light of this context, this research paper delves deeply into the policies that govern pediatric diabetes in India. It will meticulously examine the existing policy landscape, identify gaps and challenges in policy implementation, draw lessons from international case studies, and ultimately offer comprehensive policy recommendations. This research aspires to contribute significantly to the ongoing efforts aimed at addressing and combating pediatric diabetes in India, ensuring the well-being and future prospects of the young population grappling with this challenging condition.

Implications of Untreated Pediatric Diabetes

Pediatric diabetes, both type 1 and type 2, poses significant health and economic challenges. Untreated diabetes can quickly lead to life-threatening diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). DKA necessitates emergency medical care, incurring immediate healthcare costs.

Uncontrolled diabetes can impair physical growth and cognitive development in children. Developmental delays can have lifelong consequences, affecting a child’s potential.

There are elevated risks of diabetes, as it significantly raises the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as narrowed blood vessels, high blood pressure, heart disease, and stroke later in life. Managing cardiovascular complications requires ongoing medical care and treatment, contributing to long-term economic costs. The development of complications not only affects physical health but also reduces overall well-being. Coping with chronic complications can take a toll on mental health, necessitating psychological support and counselling (Gomber et al, 2022). The management of pediatric diabetes involves frequent hospitalizations, medications, and the use of specialized equipment like insulin pumps and glucose monitoring devices. Direct medical costs can constitute a substantial portion of a family’s income.

Amidst the undeniable impact of pediatric diabetes, the epidemiological landscape in India and South Asia has been skewed toward adult diabetes, overlooking the substantial challenges faced by children. Nonetheless, commendable efforts have been initiated to address this knowledge gap. Karnataka embarked on a multicentric registry project spanning over 13 years, shedding light on the incidence rates of pediatric diabetes. The findings revealed incidence figures of 3.7/100,000 boys and 4.0/100,000 girls, although it is crucial to acknowledge the potential influence of incomplete reporting from various parts of the state. India’s unique physiological composition, characterized by a higher percentage of body fat and visceral fat compared to Caucasians with a similar body mass index, has led to the identification of a distinctive “thin fat” Indian diabetes phenotype, manifest from birth and potentially exacerbated by accelerated childhood growth (Narayan et al., 2023). This unique pathophysiological state is speculated to contribute to the early onset of type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome in Indian children.

Recognizing the imperative need for comprehensive data and insights, the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) undertook a ground-breaking nationwide study on pediatric diabetes in 2022. The findings from this study were eye-opening, revealing a substantial surge in type 1 diabetes cases among Indian children. Moreover, it highlighted a narrowing urban-rural disparity in the diabetes burden, emphasizing the pervasive nature of this issue (López-Bastida, Julio, et al, 2017). Despite the prevalence of type 2 diabetes, the study also brought to light an alarming increase in the number of children being diagnosed with type 1 diabetes.

Globally, the burden of pediatric T1DM is substantial, with an estimated 78,000 children under the age of 15 developing T1DM each year. It is noteworthy that India, with its large population, holds the majority of T1DM cases in the South-East Asian region. Despite the challenges posed by this growing prevalence, India’s pediatric T1DM incidence remains in line with the global trend. India is grappling with a growing prevalence of pediatric T1DM. The country stands out as a significant contributor to the global burden, with approximately 3 new cases per 100,000 children (Kalra, Sanjay, and Mudita Dhingra, 2018). Understanding the global trends and prevalence rates of pediatric diabetes, encompassing both T1DM and T2DM, is of paramount importance. These trends shed light on the evolving landscape of diabetes among the world’s youth. In the case of India, acknowledging its contribution to the growing burden of pediatric T1DM and T2DM can aid in the development and prioritization of policies for effective diabetes management among children and adolescents. This approach is crucial to ensure the well-being and future prospects of the young population affected by this condition in India and around the world.

Existing Policy Landscape in India

India has initiated several healthcare policies to address the challenges posed by pediatric diabetes, including both type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) among children and adolescents. These policies encompass various facets, including the provision of essential tools for diabetes management, such as insulin shots and glucometers, as well as efforts to identify diabetes cases within the school system.

Launched by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) in 2006, this registry initially involved eight collaborating centers across India, later expanding to ten. While it doesn’t exclusively focus on T1DM, it collects extensive data, including age of onset, treatment patterns, insulin regimens, complications, infections, and causes of mortality (Kalra, Sanjay, and Mudita Dhingra, 2018).

A milestone achievement by the Uttar Pradesh state government permits students with type 1 diabetes to carry insulin into classrooms. This move promotes inclusivity and raises awareness about type 1 diabetes, impacting over 8.5 lakh children across the nation. Furthermore, allowing children with type 1 diabetes to bring essential items to board examinations is a significant move to ensure their well-being during critical academic assessments (Gomber et al, 2022).

The NCPCR has played a crucial role in advocating for the rights and well-being of children with type 1 diabetes. It has communicated with education boards across states and union territories, emphasizing the importance of schools providing proper care and necessary facilities (López-Bastida, Julio, et al, 2017). The advocacy efforts of the NCPCR are essential for ensuring the rights of children with type 1 diabetes are upheld in schools. The effectiveness of this policy will be measured by the extent to which schools adhere to guidelines and provide necessary support.

Despite these initiatives, several challenges persist in the policy landscape related to pediatric diabetes in India. Children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes continue to face barriers, including the cost of insulin, glucometers, and related supplies. Additionally, there is a need for structured diabetes education and counseling, along with the proper training of healthcare professionals (Kalra, Sanjay, and Mudita Dhingra, 2018).

Addressing juvenile non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like type 1 diabetes is urgently required. While some progress has been made, existing support from non-government organizations and pharmaceutical companies remains fragmented. A structured, implementable, deliverable, replicable, scalable, and pharmaco-economically viable national healthcare policy is imperative (López-Bastida, Julio, et al, 2017).

To address these policy gaps, a pilot model project for the management of type 1 diabetes has been initiated in selected districts of West Bengal (Narayan et al., 2023). This innovative project leverages the existing healthcare delivery system and integrates with the National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases, and Stroke (NPCDCS). The key components of this program include upgrading existing NCD clinics to T1DM clinics, providing comprehensive healthcare services, including detection, management, referrals, and rehabilitation, delivering structured diabetes education and counselling, creating a registry of type 1 diabetes patients, training human resources and building capacity at the community level.

Policy Recommendations

This section delves into the policies implemented by the United Kingdom (UK), Sweden, and Canada, focusing on pediatric diabetes care and management. These international case studies offer valuable insights and lessons that can be applied to enhance India’s policies related to pediatric diabetes.The examination of international policies offers valuable insights and strategies that can be applied effectively to the Indian context.

The UK’s emphasis on comprehensive strategies to prevent Type 2 diabetes and address risk inequalities is noteworthy. Their approach to reducing the overall risk of diabetes aligns with India’s growing concern regarding lifestyle-related factors leading to diabetes. India can adapt similar preventive measures, with a specific focus on addressing its unique risk factors, such as a genetic predisposition to diabetes and the increasing prevalence of childhood obesity (Prasad, 2011). Collaboration with schools, community centers, and local government bodies to promote physical activity, healthy eating habits, and obesity prevention programs can be an effective approach.

The UK’s commitment to empowering individuals with diabetes through shared decision-making and lifestyle promotion underscores the importance of education in diabetes management. India can develop culturally sensitive and easily accessible educational materials that cater to diverse populations. Leveraging technology and community health workers to reach remote areas, along with promoting diabetes education through multimedia campaigns, local health fairs, and community workshops, can help disseminate crucial information to those in need.

The UK’s focus on high-quality care standards for both children and adults highlights the importance of setting clear clinical guidelines. India can establish evidence-based clinical care standards that reflect its healthcare resources and patient population. Furthermore, the emphasis on comprehensive risk factor management can be adapted to address India’s specific healthcare challenges effectively.

In the case of Sweden, its use of data registries for informed decision-making demonstrates the significance of tracking diabetes prevalence, outcomes, and policy effectiveness. India can establish robust data collection systems that are scalable and accessible, even in resource-limited settings. Collaboration with research institutions to analyze data and refine policies based on real-world outcomes can lead to more effective diabetes management strategies.

On the other hand, Canada’s policies supporting children with diabetes in schools showcase the importance of ensuring the safety, well-being, and participation of students with diabetes. India can collaborate with education boards to integrate diabetes management guidelines into school policies, providing comprehensive training for teachers and school staff (Venkatesh, 2021). This would help recognize diabetes-related emergencies, handle blood sugar testing, and administer insulin effectively.

India can tailor preventive strategies to address its unique risk factors, such as genetic predisposition and the growing burden of childhood obesity (Milton, B., et al, 2006). Collaboration with local bodies, schools, and community centers can help promote physical activity and healthy eating habits among children, effectively reducing diabetes risk. Furthermore, India can develop evidence-based clinical care standards that reflect its unique healthcare resources and patient population. Cost-effective strategies for regular surveillance, blood glucose control, and complications management should be incorporated.

Collaboration with education boards and comprehensive training for school staff can integrate diabetes management effectively into school policies, ensuring the safety and well-being of students with diabetes (Gomber et al, 2022). Culturally appropriate antenatal care programs should be developed for pregnant women with diabetes, involving maternal and child health centers to provide specialized support and education. Establishing a network of healthcare providers and support groups for comprehensive care, particularly for those requiring multi-agency support, will improve outcomes.

Implementing scalable data collection systems and collaborating with research institutions to analyze data will contribute to evidence-based policies and effective management. To ensure successful policy implementation, investing in healthcare provider training is crucial (Kumar, 2015). Offer workshops, seminars, and continuous medical education to equip healthcare professionals with the knowledge and skills needed for pediatric diabetes management. Finally, leveraging community health workers to bridge the gap between healthcare facilities and remote communities is essential These workers can play a pivotal role in educating families about diabetes, helping with regular check-ups, and monitoring treatment compliance.

Conclusion

This paper identifies the lack of robust, data-driven policymaking as a major hurdle in crafting targeted interventions. Recommendations are made for enhancing policy frameworks by integrating comprehensive diabetes education programs, improving healthcare infrastructure, and fostering public-private partnerships to boost research and development. By implementing these strategies and engaging various stakeholders, India can effectively execute and monitor its pediatric diabetes policies. This will ultimately improve the lives of countless children and adolescents living with diabetes in the country. Periodic reviews and necessary policy adjustments ensure that policies remain responsive to the evolving healthcare landscape and the needs of the pediatric diabetes population.

References

• Gomber, Apoorva, et al. ‘Variation in the Incidence of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus in Children and Adolescents by World Region and Country Income Group: A Scoping Review’. PLOS Global Public Health, vol. 2, no. 11, Public Library of Science (PLoS), Nov. 2022, p. e0001099, https://doi.org10.1371/journal.pgph.0001099.
• Health and Economic Costs of Chronic Diseases. 23 Mar. 2023, https://www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/about/costs/index.htm.
• Kalra, Sanjay, and Mudita Dhingra. ‘Childhood Diabetes in India’. Annals of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism, vol. 23, no. 3, Korean Society of Pediatric Endocrinology, Sept. 2018, pp. 126–130, https://doi.org10.6065/apem.2018.23.3.126.
• Kumar, Kanakatte Mylariah Prasanna. ‘Incidence Trends for Childhood Type 1 Diabetes in India’. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, vol. 19, no. Suppl 1, Medknow, Apr. 2015, pp. S34-5, https://doi.org10.4103/2230-8210.155378.
• Kumar, A., Goel, M. K., Jain, R. B., Khanna, P., & Chaudhary, V. (2013). India towards diabetes control: Key issues. The Australasian medical journal, 6(10), 524–531. https://doi.org/10.4066/AMJ.2013.1791
• López-Bastida, Julio, et al. ‘Social Economic Costs of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus in Pediatric Patients in Spain: CHRYSTAL Observational Study’. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, vol. 127, Elsevier BV, May 2017, pp. 59–69, https://doi.org10.1016/j.diabres.2017.02.033.
• Milton, B., et al. ‘The Social and Economic Consequences of Childhood-Onset Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus across the Lifecourse: A Systematic Review’. Diabetic Medicine: A Journal of the British Diabetic Association, vol. 23, no. 8, Wiley, Aug. 2006, pp. 821–829, https://doi.org10.1111/j.1464-5491.2006.01796.x.
• Narayan, K. M. V., Varghese, J. S., Beyh, Y. S., Bhattacharyya, S., Khandelwal, S., Krishnan, G. S., Siegel, K. R., Thomas, T., & Kurpad, A. V. (2023). A Strategic Research Framework for Defeating Diabetes in India: A 21st-Century Agenda. Journal of the Indian Institute of Science, 1–22. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41745-022-00354-5
• Prasad, A. N. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Young: Need for Early Screening. https://www.indianpediatrics.net/sep2011/683.pdf
• Venkatesh, Uthra. ‘Diabetes in Children in India – Expert Advice and Cure’. Diabetes, PharmEasy, 9 Oct. 2021, https://pharmeasy.in/conditions/diabetes/diabetes-in-children-in-india/

About the author:

Pranjali Prakash is passionate about international relations, politics and human rights. Her hobbies include travelling and writing. Currently, Pranjali is a 10^th grader at The Overlake School. She aspires to serve her country as a diplomat in the future.

Abstract

This research article addresses the critical issue of unequal representation in the UNSC and its adverse impact on international relations, particularly for countries in the Global South. The paper also discusses several proposed models for reform, evaluating their feasibility and potential impact on global governance. It addresses concerns about the efficacy of a larger council and the risk of increased political deadlock. A detailed case for why and how the UNSC should be reformed to include greater representation for developing countries is presented. The article concludes by advocating for a concerted international effort towards UNSC reform, emphasizing that greater representation for the Global South is crucial for addressing contemporary global challenges in a fair and effective manner. The author calls for the international community to prioritize this issue within the broader agenda of UN reform as it is essential for international peace and security.

Introduction

The United Nations has had one central goal – to maintain peace and security while embracing the diversity of nations and their interests. In recent times, the limitations and efficacy of its decisions and the complexity of addressing glaring disparities in disproportionately representing the Global South have been brought forth (Fassbender, 1998).

The current administrative and policy limitations of the UN are rooted in the stumbling block of vested geopolitical interests wielded by the P5. Their reluctance to cede their existing power has resulted with the UNSC becoming a mere spectator to conflicts. Whether it be the Russia-Ukraine crisis or the ongoing Israel-Palestine conflict, this key structural flaw perpetuates a dangerous stalemate, impeding the resolution of global disputes (Chesterman, 2006). Hence, in recent times most member states of the UN have unanimously concurred on one critical reform – the expansion of the United Nations Security Council to adequately represent developing countries.

This paper outlines the historical context of the UNSC’s formation. It highlights how post-World War II power dynamics have led to a structure that currently disproportionately favors the interests of its permanent members over those of developing countries. Through qualitative analysis, the implications of this imbalance on global governance – including the challenges it poses to legitimacy, equity, and the effectiveness of international conflict resolution – are examined (Freeman, 2007). Inclusive representation would not only enhance the council’s legitimacy but also improve its decision-making processes by incorporating a wider range of international perspectives and interests (Sharland, 2018). A variety of sources including international law and case studies of previous UNSC interventions have been leveraged to move towards this conclusion.

The Origins of the UNSC

Before delving into the intricacies of reforms, it is vital to discuss the formation of the United Nations Security Council. The UNSC was established following a historical landmark conceived from the aftermath of World War II. The resolution mandated that all member states vest their powers in an international forum (Runde, 2020). In turn, the UNSC was tasked with the monumental undertaking of addressing threats to international peace and security and providing impactful solutions to conflicts. Furthermore, unlike other organs of the United Nations that can only make recommendations to member states, only the UNSC has the sole power to implement policy decisions (Cardenas, 2003).

Unfortunately, the foundational structure of the Security Council has been largely undemocratic from the beginning. It consists of the P5 – China, France, Russia, United Kingdom and United States of America. The P5, a designation reflective of the member countries’ victorious roles in World War II were endowed with the unilateral abrogation of 2 conditions – being permanent members of the UNSC along with the ability to veto any decision. These two powers have allowed them to have a unique influence over the rest of the Council (Royeppen 2016).

Examining the historical evolution of the UNSC in the context of the continued dominance of the P5 has been a subject of great debate, with critics asserting the inequitable power distribution that it inherently implies (Sidhu, 2020). As of 2023, having the permanent members brandish a disproportionate influence within the UN affects the entire international community. The numerical incongruities of having 5 out of 193 member states exercise veto powers over landmark foreign policy decisions has fueled passionate discourse on the comprehensive reforms required to address the growing disconnect between the UNSC’s compositional and multilateral distribution of power.

The Case for UNSC Reformation

The current composition of the UNSC with the P5 exercising veto powers perpetuates an outdated power structure that does not correspond to today’s distribution of global influence. Maintaining a status quo from more than seven decades ago hampers the ability of the international community to act timely, cohesively, and equitably in the face of global challenges. Contemporary geopolitical tensions highlight several compelling reasons for reform.

Firstly, the rotating basis of the 10 non-permanent members means that they are unable to create lasting policy change due to the limits of their two-year tenure. Genuine representation of diverse interests remains elusive within the UN. At the same time, demand for increased representation for regions such as Africa, Asia, and Latin America reverberates within international dialogue. Considering the ever-growing challenges and contemporary issues ranging from climate change, global health pandemics, and evolving security threats, a responsive and effective UNSC is the need of the hour (Weiss, 2011). However, entrenched structures inherited from the post-WWII era, wherein the Council’s interventions are imperative to ensure harmonious international peace and security obstruct timely decision-making. The restricted inclusivity of the UNSC leads to a diverse array of voices, perspectives and people from the Global South that are integral to the decision-making process, being left with a lack of opportunity and inadequate representation.

Moreover, the UNSC’s relevance today is linked to their capability of responding to contemporary challenges that demand swift and coordinated action plans for overcoming diplomatic hurdles. In this regard, the UN’s spectatorship towards current international conflicts will adversely undermine the institution, depreciating its value, impact and credibility. The historical inability of the UN to prevent and resolve crises in several areas where geopolitical interests of the P5 have prevailed imply that one must move towards reforms to reflect a UNSC that isn’t mired in the politics of power, but focused on fostering global security (Narlikar, 2020). In an age marked by interconnectedness and interdependence, the UNSC must evolve to accommodate the aspirations and concerns of nations worldwide, fostering a more equitable and cooperative international order.

This call for reform is not a mere critique of an outdated system but is instead a proactive step towards fortifying the UNSC as a resilient and effective institution capable of navigating the intricacies of today’s interconnected world. Only through comprehensive reform can the UNSC regain its standing as a credible and influential force for global peace and security in the 21st century.

Past Reforms of the UNSC: Actions

As supporting data, there are 2 main case studies to look into. The first, is Mr Kofi Annan’s commissioned report on the UNSC in 2005, that marked the beginning of the discourse for substantive reform in the institution. The administrators of this commission were tasked with the responsibility of evaluating the structural and procedural shortcomings of the UNSC, and the Advisory Panel of Change presented a comprehensive report clearly stating that the privileges granted to the P5 nations no longer align with the geopolitical situation of the 21rst century. Once again, Annan highlighted the underrepresentation of African, Latin American and Asian minorities and provided compelling arguments for the imperative of change. The numbers were compelling, revealing a glaring discrepancy between the council’s current configuration and the demographic makeup of the global community (Urquhart, 1996). This detailed examination of the structural inequities formed the basis of Annan’s call for substantive reforms.

Secondly, the data displayed in the World Summit Outcome Document of 2005 further solidifies the case for UNSC reform. Within this document, all member states of the United Nations, unilaterally agree upon this reform, endorsing the “responsibility to protect” principle, echoing the sentiments of Annan’s report. As Kofi Annan stated during his statement to the United Nations General Assembly (2005): “In particular, I ask them to embrace the principle of the Responsibility to Protect as a basis for collective action against genocide, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity – recognising that this responsibility lies first and foremost with each individual state, but also that, if national authorities are unable or unwilling to protect their citizens, the responsibility then shifts to the international community; and that, in the last resort, the United Nations Security Council may take enforcement action according to the Charter.”

With the world population exceeding 7 billion, having simply the P5 no longer resounds with the great majority of the population. Therefore, Kofi Annan’s commissioned report, coupled with the data of the World Summit Outcome Document (2005) act as a call to action, a call for diversity, and a call to reform and as catalysts for change. The undeniable emphasis on modernizing the structural framework from the post-war era and equitable representation with numerical backing impart a meticulous analysis for an irrefutable case for transforming the UNSC to better reflect geopolitical realities of the world today.

Policy Recommendations

Looking back, when the UN was first established, with 50-odd countries, there were simply 6 non-permanent members and then, following the amendment suggested in 1963, it was expanded to 10 non-permanent members with 113 member states then. However, now, how can 15 members take decisions on the behalf of 193 member states? How can there be a representative UNSC, if not a single country from the entire continents of Africa or Latin America is present as a permanent member? How can the world’s largest and most populous democracy be kept away? How can 5 member states abrogating themselves the right to obstruct any decision an overwhelming majority may agree upon? These are the questions, through reforms, that one must work towards answering (Wouters and Ruys, 2005).

Amongst the plethora of potential changes, three pivotal changes stand out in their potential for reshaping the operational framework of the Security Council to eventually meet the evolving expectations of a dynamic global landscape. These three key reforms include:

1. Abolition of the veto power: Firstly, addressing the reform of abolishing the veto power. The very intention of the veto power is to prevent the UNSC from taking actions contrary to the interests of the P5 members, as countless times it has resulted in gridlock and inaction, because a single dissenting voice can stymie decisive measures. Abolishing the veto power would signify departing from a power-centric framework that truly symbolizes the very essence of democracy (Narlikar, 2020).
2. Expanding permanent membership to more developing nations: Secondly, expanding permanent membership to more developing countries. As stated earlier, the P5 members were decided on the basis of their victory as a result of a conflict dating back to more than 7 decades ago. However, in today’s day and age, this power dynamic does not adequately reflect the contemporary geopolitical landscape, where there is not a single permanent representative member from the continents of Latin America or Africa, that each constitute a population of 667 million and 1.46 billion people in 33 and 54 countries respectively. This pressing demand for inclusivity has initiated the proposition to expand permanent membership to more developing nations from Africa, Latin America and Asia, from booming economies and democracies of the future, such as South Africa, Brazil and India (Chesterman, 2006). This reform aligns with principles of diversity, to rectify historical imbalances of power, improve the UNSC’s legitimacy to avoid perpetuating existing disparities.
3. Improvement in governance: The last reform is the improvement of the working methods, to make decisions more responsive and impactful decisions. There must be a call for more efficiency, enhanced communication channels, streamlining the decision-making process and most of all, transparency (Mishra, 2007). By fostering a more collaborative environment, this reform seeks to mitigate the perception of a divided council and enhance its ability to address emerging challenges.

Conclusion

This research contributes to the ongoing debate on UNSC reform by providing a comprehensive analysis of the need for greater inclusivity and by proposing actionable steps towards achieving this goal. Through its examination of the intersection between global governance and the representation of developing countries, the article offers valuable insights for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners interested in the future of international relations and global equity.

The UNSC presently stands at a crucial juncture where the injunction for reform resounds with an unmistakable urgency. Having illustrated the glaring constraints that impede its capacity of adequately representing the Global South, and having delved into its historical evolution and divulging essential reforms, one must gaze to the horizon to navigate these complexities, thereby ushering in a framework for a more inclusive system that serves the collective interests of the international community and responds effectively, by providing impactful resolutions to conflicts and crises. As the UN marks September 2024 by orchestrating “The Summit of the Future”, where the blueprint for its priorities over the next quarter-century, that is until the UN becomes a centenarian as the fulcrum of global governance. Against the backdrop of the Summit, a meticulously-defined timeline to propel these reforms forward must be put in place, as it is henceforth indispensable to further forestall the continual underscoring for the recalibration of international power dynamics.

As Mr. Ban Ki-Moon, the former Secretary General of the United Nations remarked, “Lasting peace can only be built on the premise that all people have equal rights and dignity – regardless of ethnicity, gender, religion, social or other status”.

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About the author:

Natassha Vairavan currently studies in the 11^th grade at The International School Bangalore. She is enthusiastic about social change and financial literacy. She aspires to build a career in corporate law.

Abstract

The MSP policy, designed to stabilize income for farmers by guaranteeing a minimum price for their crops, plays a crucial role in India’s agricultural sector. However, there are significant gaps and challenges associated with its implementation that potentially undermine its effectiveness in achieving food security. This research paper provides a comprehensive analysis of India’s Minimum Support Price (MSP) policy, focusing on its effectiveness in ensuring food security. An extensive review of existing literature is conducted with the goal of providing innovative solutions for this policy challenge.

Introduction

India’s agricultural sector is the backbone of its economy. The World Bank asserts that a staggering three-quarters of India’s population are reliant on rural income. Rural areas house approximately 770 million individuals, who must meet the growing demands of India’s rising population and income to avoid food insecurity. Working as a “global agricultural powerhouse”, India harvests the world’s largest production of pulses and spices whilst being the second largest contributor to the supply of wheat, cotton, rice and sugarcane (Landes, 2008).

The Minimum Support Price (MSP) is a policy intervention in which the government sets the minimum price for 22 mandated crops. This includes 14 crops of the kharif season, ones sown during monsoons (June to September) such as pulses, sugarcane, maize and millets, as well as 6 rabi crops that are sown in winter and 2 commercial crops. The decided upon price for these products are ones at which they would be bought directly from the farmers if the open market prices are less than the cost incurred (Kumar and Sekher, 2023).  This occurs twice annually under the intention of two main objectives, namely that of protection of farmers from distress sales and procurement of food grains for public distribution.

Objectives of the Minimum Support Price (MSP)

In sum, the function of the Minimum Support Price (MSP) policy in securing food security in India is of paramount importance, and its multifaceted impact warrants thorough examination. Firstly, the MSP acts as a mainstay in sustaining stable food production within the nation. By ensuring a price floor for agricultural commodities, it presents farmers with a well-grounded income source, incentivizing them to engage in harvesting consistently (Brink, 2014). This assurance is rewarded with a fostered dependable and uninterrupted food supply. Moreover, the MSP acts as a barricade against food price volatility. In the absence of a minimum price guarantee, food prices can exhibit critical fluctuations due to factors like climatic conditions, market dynamics, and global supply shocks. These price oscillations can introduce uncertainty in terms of food availability and affordability for consumers. The MSP functions as a stabilizing force, curbing price fluctuations and providing a safety net for consumers (Gulati and Sharma, 1995).

The Minimum Support Price (MSP) is determined after considering numerous factors, including production costs, market trends, and farmers’ general well-being. In India, there are two primary cropping seasons: ‘Rabi’ and ‘Kharif’. The government announces the MSP at the start of each cropping season. The Commission on Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) calculates and proposes the MSP. After the government has adequately evaluated the primary arguments made by the CACP, the MSP is established. The CACP uses a comprehensive view of a particular commodity or group of commodities to calculate the MSP. A key factor in determining the MSP is the cost of production, which includes various raw materials including labor, seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, machinery, and other components.

The MSP acts as extended assurance for investment decisions of producers. It was introduced with a guarantee that prices would remain steady, even in the event of a bumper crop, to offer economic stability to the agricultural sector and promote increased production. As a subsidy scheme, the government also leverages the MSP for poverty alleviation.

Additionally, the policy prevents distress sales. This is because on average, the monthly income made by a family reliant upon agriculture is less than Rs. 9000, or approximately USD $130. Hence, producers do not generate a surplus saving for the purchase of inputs dedicated to the next cropping season. Small and marginalized farmers also face challenges in obtaining loans, rendering credit access a struggle for them. Therefore, if forced into distress-sale of produce at inadequate prices, farmers are unable to buy high quality supplies such as fertilizers and seeds for their next harvest, further decreasing their income from the next cycle. The Minimum Support Price prevents this crisis. 

The MSP also aids in informed decision-making. The government makes public their set MSP before the sowing season for 23 crops. This advance information helps the farmer to make an informed decision about which crop to sow for maximum economic benefit within the limitations of his farm size, climate and irrigation facilities.

Finally, the MSP acts as a benchmark for private buyers. The MSP functions as a market indicator, working as a price-signal it alerts to merchants that to be sold a farmer’s produce, their offering price needs to be higher than that of the policy’s. This establishes the MSP as a referencing anchor for the agriculture commodity market. Although it is unable to guarantee market prices will exceed the MSP, it serves to provide assurance that these prices will not drop significantly below the MSP level, thus reducing income instability.

Policy Recommendations

The Minimum Support Price (MSP) policy in India is a crucial component of the agricultural policy framework. It is intended to insure agricultural producers against any sharp fall in farm prices and aims to stabilize the income of the farmers. However, there are several challenges and inefficiencies associated with the current MSP policy which have implications for both the policy’s effectiveness and broader agricultural outcomes (Shakeel, Salman, Shazli, Naqvi and Siddiqui, 2023). They include the existence of market distortions that undermine the intended impact of the MSP. For instance, delayed payments to agricultural producers and regional disparities are threats to the implementation of the policy as they can impede the equitable distribution of MSP benefits. Additionally, efficient and transparent procurement mechanisms are crucial (Gulati and Sharma, 1995). This includes ensuring the availability of procurement centers, timely payments to farmers, and reducing bureaucratic hurdles. Implementing a direct benefit transfer system where the difference between the MSP and the market price is directly paid to the farmer can reduce the administrative burden and leakages in the system.

Budgetary constraints are one of the foremost challenges as there is a financial burden posed by the Minimum Support Policy to the Indian government. Recurrent increases in the MSP strains government budgets and creates an opportunity cost for other crucial sectors within the economy, endangering the long-term viability of the policy. Critics argue that the MSP policy, when not carefully managed can contribute to overall price inflation in the economy. This inflationary pressure can affect not only consumers but also the cost of production for various industries, potentially leading to economic imbalances.

Furthermore, the MSP primarily focuses on a select set of crops, leaving out a considerable portion of agricultural produce. It can lead to skewed cropping patterns and environmental issues like water depletion. Broadening the MSP to include a larger variety of crops, including perishables and pulses, can encourage crop diversification and sustainability (Vanshika and Harsana, 2022). This limited coverage can leave many farmers without MSP benefits, exacerbating income disparities within the agricultural sector. Furthermore, the role of intermediaries in the agricultural supply chain presents a challenge to the effective implementation of the MSP. Middlemen can sometimes exploit farmers, leading to suboptimal benefits from the policy and reducing its impact on farmer income (Acharya, 1997).

Introducing a closely linked relationship between subsidization and sustainable agricultural practices may promote crop diversification, pushing farmers to harvest grains that have a lower carbon footprint and require less water-intensive production. Furthermore, by granting higher MSPs for the adoption of such practices, producers are incentivized to engage in organic farming, no-till farming, precision agriculture and more. However, this too poses a financial burden on the government (Shenggen, Gulati and Thorat, 2008).

To alleviate this concern, public-private relationships can be encouraged as they serve as a bulwark against the tight budgetary restrictions. Correspondingly, this can enhance market efficiency and provide marginalized areas with an increased access to markets and technology (Kumar and Sekher, 2023). Effective market linkages are essential to ensure that farmers receive the MSP. Developing infrastructure such as warehouses, cold storage, and efficient transportation, and strengthening the agricultural supply chain can help in better implementation of the MSP. For the MSP to thrive, market efficiency should be a critical objective. Via the improvement of market infrastructure, storage facilities and transportation networks to prevent post-harvest losses and warrant farmers earn suitable prices for their produce, it is possible to mitigate price volatility (Dantwala, 1976).

Conclusion

Despite its multifaceted implications, India’s Minimum Support Price policy plays a pivotal part in the country’s cultivation of agricultural output. Its effect on the economic viability of farmers and food security manifest it to be a safety net for income stability. Behaving as both a shock buffer and an indicator of financially rewarding crops, the MSP achieves its intention of assistance in alleviating wage insecurity but extends further into sustaining stable food production for a vast population.

Regardless, the policy is undermined by several cracks in its foundation such as budgetary constriction, environmentally negative externalities and inflation. Upon reviewing the MSP, policymakers have to consider how to encourage crop-diversification suitable to regions and resource allocation. A carefully calibrated and evolving MSP can have long-term resilience if it is able to overcome adversity and continually ensure the economic well-being of farmers, food sovereignty in a manner that is sustainable both financially and ecologically.

References

• Kumar, Deepak, and Madhushree Sekher. “Minimum Support Price and the Changing Nature of Rural Economy and Its Implications on Agriculture in Haryana.” Business Perspectives and Research (2023): 22785337231164205.
• Korekallu Srinivasa, Aditya, K. V. Praveen, Subash Surendran Padmaja, M. L. Nithyashree, and Girish K. Jha. “Does a farmer’s knowledge of minimum support price (MSP) affect the farm-gate price? Evidence from India.” Journal of Economics and Development 25, no. 4 (2023): 302-316.
• Vanshika, Sanjana, and Pawan Harsana. “Minimum support price conundrum and sustainable farming: a study of the impact of the socio-economic factors on sustainable agriculture.” Vantage J Them Anal (2022).
• Brink, Lars. “Support to Agriculture in India in 1995-2013 and the Rules of the WTO.” International Agricultural Trade Research Consortium (IATRC) Working Paper 14-01 (2014).
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• Acharya, Shabd Swaroop. “Agricultural price policy and development: some facts and emerging issues.” Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics 52, no. 1 (1997): 1-47.
• Landes, Maurice R. “Indian agriculture and policy in transition.” Food for Policy-Reforming Agriculture. Cambridge University (2008).
• Gulati, Ashok, and Anil Sharma. “Subsidy syndrome in Indian agriculture.” Economic and Political Weekly (1995): A93-A102.
• Shakeel, Adnan, Mohd Sadiq Salman, Tasneem Shazli, Hasan Raja Naqvi, and Masood Ahsan Siddiqui. “Reforming Indian agriculture and the rise of farmer’s protest in India: Tracing the discourse and the way ahead.” Journal of Public Affairs 23, no. 1 (2023): e2847.
• Dantwala, M. Li. “Agricultural policy in India since independence.” Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics 31, no. 902-2018-1319 (1976): 31-53.
• Fan, Shenggen, Ashok Gulati, and Sukhadeo Thorat. “Investment, subsidies, and pro‐poor growth in rural India.” Agricultural Economics 39, no. 2 (2008): 163-170.

About the author:

Jivya Lamba is deeply passionate about science and technology.  She finds fulfilment in assisting others and has contributed to supporting underprivileged girls in India by authoring a PCOS information handout and providing them with bicycles to commute to school. Currently, Jivya is in the 12^th grade at the Modern School Vasant Vihar in New Delhi. She aspires to pursue a career intersecting Chemistry and Data Science.

Abstract

Diabetes, a prevalent and chronic health condition characterized by elevated blood glucose levels poses a significant global health challenge. Early detection and prevention play pivotal roles in mitigating the impact of diabetes on individuals and healthcare systems. In recent years, the application of machine learning has garnered substantial attention for its potential to revolutionize diabetes management. This research article explores the utilization of machine learning techniques for early detection and prevention within the Indian healthcare sector.

Introduction

Diabetes is a medical condition characterized by two primary mechanisms: insufficient insulin production by the pancreas or ineffective utilization of the produced insulin by the body. Insulin, a vital hormone, is responsible for the regulation of blood glucose levels. Hyperglycemia, often referred to as elevated blood glucose or heightened blood sugar, is a common consequence of unmanaged diabetes. Over time, hyperglycemia can result in severe damage to numerous physiological systems.

According to a World Health Organization’s report, in 2014, approximately 8.5% of adults aged 18 and older were afflicted by diabetes. In the year 2019, diabetes directly contributed to 1.5 million fatalities, constituting 48% of all deaths attributable to this disease (WHO, 2019). According to the growing morbidity in recent years, in 2040, the world’s diabetic patients will reach 642 million, which means that one of the ten adults in the future is suffering from diabetes.

Between the years 2000 and 2019, there was an observed 3% rise in age-standardized mortality rates linked to diabetes. This increase was even more pronounced in lower-middle-income nations, where diabetes-related mortality surged by 13%. In contrast, there has been a noteworthy global decrease of 22% in the likelihood of succumbing to any one of the four primary noncommunicable diseases (comprising cardiovascular diseases, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases, or diabetes) between the ages of 30 and 70 years. This decline signifies recent progress in addressing these noncommunicable diseases on a global scale (Verma, Khanna and Mehta, 2012).

Machine Learning and the Healthcare Sector

The past century has witnessed a substantial increase in average life expectancy, driven by technological advancements. Emerging technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and ML herald a new era for healthcare. Through computational prowess, even the minutest aspects of medical operations can be optimized to near perfection. Although ML has already made inroads into healthcare, its untapped potential for future applications remains vast. For this paper, the terms artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) may be used interchangeably.

Machine Learning (ML) encompasses a diverse set of statistical techniques enabling computers to acquire knowledge through experience, devoid of explicit programming. With the rapid development of machine learning, machine learning has been applied to many aspects of medical health (Zhang et al, 2018). This acquisition of knowledge typically entails modifying algorithmic behavior (Bush, 2018). ML can, for instance, recognize faces by studying a dataset of photographs depicting various individuals.

Among the various sectors poised to harness the potential of ML, healthcare stands out. The healthcare industry has consistently embraced cutting-edge technologies, akin to their adoption in business and e-commerce sectors. The potential applications of ML in healthcare appear limitless. With its pioneering applications, ML is reshaping the healthcare landscape, enhancing automation and intelligent decision-making across primary, tertiary patient care, and public healthcare systems (Varma, Manoj and Panda, 2019). This transformation has the potential to improve the quality of life for billions of individuals worldwide.

For instance, ML could be a promising tool to maximize new-onset diabetes prediction than conventional statistics models, reporting an accuracy variable from 71% to 94% and exploiting a dataset composed of a minimum of 3700 patients up to a maximum of 2 million (Agliata et al, 2023).

ML technologies also hold extensive promise for optimizing clinical trial research. By employing advanced predictive analytics to evaluate potential clinical trial participants, medical professionals can process a broader range of data, reducing both costs and time associated with medical assessments.

ML also offers solutions to enhance clinical trial efficiency, including determining optimal sample sizes for enhanced efficacy and mitigating data errors through Electronic Health Records (EHRs). ML’s potential extends to research and clinical trials, where predictive studies based on ML can identify potential clinical trial participants by drawing insights from diverse data sources such as previous medical visits and social media. Real-time data access and trial management further streamline the investigation process, optimizing sample sizes and reducing data-related errors. Addressing the shortage of well-trained radiologists, ML can aid in diagnosing and analyzing medical imaging data efficiently. Today, electronic medical imaging data abounds, offering a rich dataset for analysis. ML algorithms can examine imaging data akin to skilled radiologists, detecting anomalies, lesions, tumors, and even brain bleeding. Furthermore, ML facilitates personalized, dynamic therapies by merging individual health data with predictive analytics.

Machine Learning and Diabetes

Diabetes has emerged as a significant health concern in South-East Asia, where an estimated 23 million individuals currently grapple with the condition, representing one-sixth of the global diabetic population. Notably, India boasts the largest diabetic populace and one of the world’s highest diabetes prevalence rates. Projections indicate an increase from 19.4 million in 1995 to a staggering 80.9 million by 2030. Particularly concerning is the projection of the most significant increases in diabetes cases occurring within economically productive age groups in developing nations (Kaur and Kumari, 2020). Given the current elevated mortality and morbidity rates associated with diabetes, this poses a tangible threat to the economic productivity of countries like India.

Presently, major diabetes health initiatives primarily focus on integrating diabetes healthcare into existing disease-prevention programs, such as those targeting heart disease and hypertension, which share similar risk factors. These initiatives aim to establish active educational programs for diagnosed patients regarding their risk factors and well-structured referral systems to specialists when necessary. Several prominent studies have unmistakably demonstrated a positive correlation between effective disease management and a reduction in disease burden. These findings underscore the potential for mitigating at least a portion of the economic and social burdens imposed by diabetes through appropriate treatment regimens. However, there persists a noticeable lack of awareness among policymakers and healthcare strategists regarding its gravity.

Machine learning, nestled within the realm of artificial intelligence, empowers us with potent tools for the early detection of diabetes (Kalyankar, Poojara, & Dharwadker, 2017) through Predictive Models.  Machine learning algorithms harness the prowess to scrutinize extensive datasets encompassing medical records and genetic insights, enabling the prediction of an individual’s susceptibility to diabetes. These models encompass a wide spectrum of risk factors, thus facilitating proactive interventions and lifestyle modifications.

Machine learning systems aid healthcare practitioners in the more precise and expeditious diagnosis of diabetes and its subtypes. This is achieved through a meticulous analysis of symptoms, laboratory findings, and comprehensive medical histories. By dissecting individual patient data, machine learning facilitates the customization of prevention strategies to tackle specific risk factors (Nithya and Ilango, 2017). These personalized interventions span a broad spectrum, encompassing tailored dietary recommendations and personalized exercise plans. Machine learning applications motivate individuals to embrace and sustain healthier lifestyles by delivering behavioral feedback, timely reminders, and enticing incentives.

Policy Recommendations

By identifying individuals on the cusp of prediabetes, a precursor to Type 2 diabetes, machine learning empowers early interventions to impede the progression to full-fledged diabetes. In synergy with an evolving understanding of diabetes types, machine learning emerges as a formidable ally in the quest to revolutionize diabetes detection and prevention strategies, promising to enhance the quality of life for millions worldwide (Saru and Subashree, 2019). The fusion of clinical expertise and machine learning’s analytical prowess holds the potential to usher in a new era of precision medicine in diabetes care, ensuring earlier interventions, reduced complications, and improved outcomes for patients across the globe.

In its national AI strategy, India has adopted a distinctive approach, emphasizing the utilization of AI not solely for economic advancement but also for fostering social inclusion (Parry & Aneja, 2020). The strategy, conceived and articulated by NITI Aayog, the government’s think tank, is termed #AIforAll. Consequently, the overarching objectives of the strategy include enhancing skills for quality employment: One of its central goals is to equip the Indian populace with the requisite skills to secure high-quality employment opportunities. Additionally, the strategy underscores investment in research and sectors that have the potential to maximize economic growth while simultaneously generating substantial social impact (Sarwar et al, 2018). Furthermore, the goal of scaling up Indian-developed AI solutions to benefit other developing nations worldwide is also laid out.

NITI Aayog published India’s AI strategy document on June 4, 2018, and in its formulation, NITI Aayog engaged in collaborative processes involving experts and stakeholders. These processes encompassed the development of AI projects in various domains supported by comprehensive evidence and the design of a strategy aimed at nurturing a vibrant AI ecosystem within India.

Recognizing AI as a transformative technology, NITI Aayog introduced the branding concept of #AIforAll to facilitate the widespread adoption of AI in India. This initiative aligns with India’s aspirations to assume a leadership role in AI development and underscores the strategy’s core objective of harnessing AI for inclusive socio-economic growth. Ultimately, the strategy positions India at the forefront of AI technology development, intending to serve as a hub for emerging and developing economies (Pallathadka et al, 2023). It examines the existing AI development ecosystem in India, identifies potential sectors for AI integration, assesses research and development capabilities, and outlines the roadmap for the future.

NITI Aayog’s policy recommendations within the strategy encompass over 30 facets. These recommendations advocate investment in scientific research, the promotion of reskilling and training initiatives, acceleration of AI adoption across the value chain, and the establishment of ethical, privacy, and security standards in AI applications (Islek et al, 2020). A notable flagship initiative involves the creation of two-tiered integrated AI research centres. The first tier comprises Centres of Research Excellence in AI (COREs) dedicated to fundamental research, while the second tier encompasses International Centres for Transformational AI (ICTAIs), which focus on the development of AI-based applications in domains of societal significance.

In alignment with the strategy, NITI Aayog identifies priority sectors as healthcare, agriculture, education, smart cities, and smart mobility. The strategy further recommends the establishment of Ethics Councils at each CORE and ICTAI, the formulation of sector-specific guidelines on privacy, security, and ethics, the creation of a National AI Marketplace to streamline market discovery and data collection processes, and the initiation of workforce development initiatives to bolster AI skills across the nation (Thotad, Bharamagoudar and Anami, 2023).

India, often referred to as a “country with no records,” although not entirely accurate highlights a prevailing issue within the medical sector – the deficiency in comprehensive record-keeping practices. This deficiency presents an enormous opportunity: by harnessing the entirety of our medical data in a structured and accessible format, AI and ML can be leveraged to derive tailored insights and solutions specifically tailored to our diverse population. AI has the potential to facilitate personalized treatment approaches across multiple conditions, enable efficient healthcare delivery, and lead to a more connected healthcare ecosystem. Data is omnipresent in healthcare and, as we harvest more of it, our AI and machine learning capabilities will be able to grow exponentially (Siddiqui, 2021).

Conclusion

In conclusion, the effectiveness of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning hinges upon the quality and availability of the data utilized for their training and application. Realizing this potential requires a concerted and collaborative effort involving not only the government but also organizations such as the Endocrine Society of India. These entities should take the lead in initiating data collection and research initiatives that would serve as the bedrock for future advancements in healthcare powered by AI and ML. By addressing the dearth of medical records and facilitating the integration of these technologies into our healthcare system, more effective, personalized, and equitable healthcare solutions can be generated for India.

References

• Bharadwaj, Hemantha Krishna, Aayush Agarwal, Vinay Chamola, Naga Rajiv Lakkaniga, Vikas Hassija, Mohsen Guizani, and Biplab Sikdar. “A review on the role of machine learning in enabling IoT based healthcare applications.” IEEE Access 9 (2021): 38859-38890.
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About the author:

Atharva Srivastava loves talking about equality and fixed mindsets in society. He demonstrates his passion for inciting change by engaging in fruitful discussions and debates. Currently Atharva is studying in the 12^th grade at the Shiv Nadar School, Gurgaon. He aspires to become a mechanical engineer in the future.

Abstract

The Indian healthcare system has recognized the potential of technology in improving the accessibility, quality, and efficiency of healthcare services for ordinary citizens. However, there are still significant challenges and gaps that need to be addressed, particularly the challenge of inadequate accessibility to quality healthcare for poor households in India. Consequently, there is an urgent need for comprehensive strategies that address the barriers faced by low-income individuals when accessing proper healthcare facilities. This research paper delves into the critical role of policy frameworks in effectively integrating technological solutions within the healthcare sector in India. The current landscape of technology adoption in Indian healthcare is analyzed and key opportunities are identified.

Introduction

Technological advancements hold the potential of redefining the healthcare landscape. For instance, telemedicine, enabled by virtual reality and remote monitoring is set to overcome geographical barriers, making specialised healthcare accessible anywhere. The integration of AI-driven diagnostics and predictive analytics will also quicken diagnoses and bolster resource allocation. Personalised medicine will thrive through genomics, tailoring treatments to individuals’ genetic profiles. Blockchain technology can ensure data security, particularly in electronic health records. Virtual reality will revolutionise rehabilitation, while technology-driven public health initiatives will disseminate information and drive awareness (Sengupta and Nundy, 2005).

It is important to monitor where this progress excludes lower-income households in India. In the context of this paper, low-income households imply ones that earn below 200,000 Indian rupees annually. Due to the limited income of such families, they are often unable to afford high-quality medical care, resulting in disparities in health outcomes (Dhagarra, Goswami and Kumar, 2020). This study aims to contribute to the discourse on health technology policy in emerging economies, offering insights and action points for policymakers, healthcare administrators, and technology developers in navigating the complexities of technology integration in healthcare.

The Role of Technology in Transforming Healthcare

In India, the inadequate accessibility and affordability of quality healthcare is a complex issue that can be attributed to multiple factors. The scarcity of trained human resources in the health sector leads to insufficient availability of skilled medical professionals needed to cater to the healthcare needs of the population. Additionally, poor implementation of policy measures exacerbates the problem by creating barriers to ensuring equitable access to healthcare services (Downie and Garba, 2017). Despite well-intentioned policies, their ineffective enforcement hampers efforts towards improving accessibility and affordability. Furthermore, affordability challenges pose significant obstacles for individuals seeking high-quality healthcare in India. Many people struggle financially when it comes to meeting their medical expenses due to limited income or lacklustre insurance coverage (Ramaiah, 2012).

These compounding issues have far-reaching consequences on various aspects related to public health. Limited awareness about preventive care and disease management among citizens further adds fuel to this fire as it prevents them from taking proactive measures towards maintaining good health. With the country’s unique challenges of accessibility and quality, technology’s integration offers a promising solution to long standing issues.

Technology has transcended physical barriers, offering virtual avenues to healthcare. Telemedicine, for instance, bridges the gap between rural populations and medical expertise. This innovation is especially crucial in a vast country like India, where distance often hampers timely access to medical care (Deodhar, 1982).

It is also clear that digital platforms provide Indians with health information, empowering them to make informed choices. This is vital in a system where awareness about preventive measures can significantly impact disease management. Patients equipped with knowledge become active partners in their healthcare journey. Additionally, cutting-edge technologies like AI and ML are transforming diagnostics. In a country grappling with doctor shortages, AI’s ability to analyse medical data can expedite diagnoses. Tailoring treatments to individuals’ genetic profiles enhances efficacy and minimises guesswork.

Furthermore, Electronic Health Records (EHRs) digitise patient information, streamlining healthcare delivery. In a nation where paperwork and bureaucracy can impede swift care, EHRs ensure that crucial patient data is readily available, improving clinical decisions. Finally, Technology’s data prowess enables predictive healthcare models (Kumar et al, 2014). By analysing past data, healthcare providers can identify trends and risks, enabling timely interventions. In a country with varied health profiles, such insights can have a transformative impact on public health strategies.

Policy Recommendations

Government intervention is crucial in addressing the multifaceted challenges associated with the adoption of technological advancements in India’s healthcare sector, ranging from infrastructure and funding to regulation and public awareness. For instance, there is a vast disparity in healthcare access between urban and rural areas in India. Technological advancements in healthcare need to be made accessible to all sections of the population, irrespective of their geographic or economic status (Gupta, Choudhury and Kotwal, 2023).

Additionally, many regions in India still lack the necessary infrastructure for advanced healthcare technologies. Government initiatives can play a crucial role in developing this infrastructure, such as high-speed internet for telemedicine, and modern medical facilities equipped with the latest technologies. Invest in digital infrastructure to ensure seamless connectivity and data flow, particularly in rural and remote areas (Pallathadka and Pallathadka, 2022). This includes expanding internet access and upgrading healthcare facilities with the necessary hardware and software. This would include developing a national policy for EHRs to standardize and digitize patient records across the country. This should include privacy safeguards, interoperability standards, and guidelines for data sharing between different healthcare providers. An element of this intervention would be encouraging the use of telemedicine, especially in under-served and rural areas. This requires policy frameworks that support remote consultations, digital prescriptions, and online follow-ups, along with insurance coverage for such services (Itumalla, 2012).

Collaborations between the government and private sector can be essential in bringing technological innovations to the healthcare sector. The government can facilitate these partnerships, providing a platform for innovation and sharing of resources. Foster PPPs to leverage the strengths of both sectors in technology adoption. This can help in resource pooling, innovation, and efficient implementation of technology solutions in healthcare.

Create a supportive regulatory environment for health tech startups. This includes easing norms for digital health innovations, providing funding support, and creating incubation centres for health technology. The development and implementation of new technologies often require significant investment (Dhagarra, Goswami and Kumar, 2020). The government can provide financial support through grants, subsidies, and incentives to encourage research and adoption of new technologies in healthcare.

Allocate funds and resources for R&D in health technology. Encourage universities and research institutions to focus on developing innovative healthcare technologies suited for Indian contexts. Support for research and development is critical for continuous innovation in healthcare technologies (Wani, Taneja and Adlakha, 2013). Government funding and support can help in conducting research that is specifically tailored to the needs of the Indian healthcare system.

Ensure that technology adoption does not widen the healthcare access gap. Create policies that address the needs of all sections of society, including those who are technologically disadvantaged. In many cases, there is a lack of awareness or resistance to change among both healthcare providers and patients. Government campaigns and initiatives can help in educating the public and healthcare workers about the benefits of new technologies, thereby increasing acceptance and adoption. Leverage the widespread use of mobile phones to deliver health information, appointment scheduling, and remote monitoring services (Bhati, 2015).

Navigating Challenges

While the promise of technology is clear, challenges remain. Data privacy concerns, security vulnerabilities, and unequal access must be tackled. Additionally, the tech-savviness of a diverse Indian population needs to be considered, ensuring inclusivity (Sengupta and Nundy, 2005). Technology’s infusion into the Indian healthcare landscape has ushered in an era of unprecedented possibilities and transformation. In a nation where healthcare challenges are as diverse as its population, technology plays a pivotal role in bridging gaps, enhancing accessibility, and elevating the quality of healthcare services.

Furthermore, India’s vast expanse poses unique challenges in delivering healthcare to remote and underserved regions. Technology, through telemedicine and virtual consultations, transcends distances, bringing medical expertise to areas previously devoid of specialised care. This is especially vital in a country where disparities in healthcare access are often shaped by geographical limitations.

Conclusion

The horizon of Indian healthcare shines with promise as technology accelerates its evolution. Collaboration across sectors will be pivotal, addressing challenges like data security and ethics, ensuring India’s healthcare future is patient-centred, efficient, and inclusive. This research article explored various policy solutions, ranging from infrastructure development, standardization of Electronic Health Records (EHRs), expansion of telemedicine services, to fostering public-private partnerships and ensuring robust cybersecurity measures (Kumar, 2012). Well-crafted and contextually adapted policies are essential to harness the full potential of technological innovations, particularly in addressing the unique healthcare challenges faced by India, such as accessibility in rural areas, affordability, and quality of care.

The paper also underscores the significance of stakeholder involvement, including government bodies, healthcare providers, technology firms, and patients, in shaping a cohesive policy ecosystem. The findings highlight the transformative impact that thoughtfully implemented policies can have on healthcare outcomes, leading to increased efficiency, improved patient care, and overall healthcare system resilience.

References

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About the author:

Arianna is a student from Jumeirah college in Dubai. Growing up in the Middle East has influenced to apply a political lens to her surroundings. In the past few years, she has gained a passion for political science and economics. She plans to study international relations at the undergraduate level.

Abstract

As a culturally diverse region, the Middle East has witnessed many socio-cultural and economic changes in recent decades. These societies have consequently become more progressive and liberal, modifying their role in the world especially in relation to the treatment of women. Since its independence in 1956, Tunisia has been a regional leader in promoting women’s rights. Tunisian women have gained increased access to education and employment, contributing significantly to the workforce. This research article will explore how women have started playing a larger socio-political and economic role in Tunisia, reflecting changes around the status of women in the MENA region.

Introduction

Historically, in Middle Eastern society, traditional gender roles have placed women in subordinate positions. Traditional interpretations of Islamic texts have often been used to justify gender-based hierarchies, where women have been excluded and received limited access to education (Alsamawi and Badr, 2009). A detrimental impact of this was women’s voices being muted in societal issues, rendering them unable to participate politically.

These patterns in the treatment of women were reflective of Tunisian society as well. However, the Arab Spring and subsequent socio-political changes have played a pivotal role in altering the status and opportunities for Tunisian women. Furthermore, Tunisia has experienced economic development and the development of an increasingly modernized economy (Arfaoui, 2014). The positive effects of this include greater labor force participation of women. Over the years, Tunisia has continued to make strides in women’s empowerment especially through legal reforms. Wider access to education for women in Tunisia has led to greater awareness of rights and opportunities, empowering them to participate more actively in politics and decision making. This has been aided by increased access to media and information for Tunisian citizens (Norwood, 2011). These socio-political changes in Tunisia reflect larger transformations in the Middle East within the landscape for women, paving the way for their evolved role in politics and public life. These socio-cultural shifts are instrumental in understanding the future of the region.

Women’s Rights Through Legal Reforms

Traditional interpretations of Islamic law often reinforced patriarchal norms, leading to legal structures that disadvantaged women in Islamic countries in their social, economic, and political participation (Bouchoucha, 2018). Consequently, in recent decades, several Middle Eastern countries have implemented changes in citizenship laws, allowing women to pass on nationality to their children and spouses in some countries, thereby granting them greater legal rights. For instance, in the United Arab Emirates, women hold two-thirds of all public sector jobs within the country, proving that women are trusted to engage in a political society.

Tunisia has been a pioneer in such reforms, implementing legal reforms in family laws including issues such as divorce, marriage, and custody (Grami, 2018). The country has progressively moved towards legislation that grant women more rights and liberty. For instance, Tunisia has enacted laws against violence towards women. Another example is the Code of Personal Status (CPS) introduced in 1956 by President Bourguiba. This legislation abolished polygamy, established judicial divorce, and promoted women’s rights in matters of child custody and inheritance.

Furthermore, in June 2017, the Tunisian parliament passed another landmark law criminalizing domestic violence against women. This was a significant step as it broadened the scope of criminal law to combat male violence against women in its physical, moral, sexual, economic, and political forms. Additionally, the law also directed ministries and state institutions to prevent and combat violence against women, including through education, training, detection, awareness-raising, and providing information, care, and ongoing support to survivors (Baliamoune, 2012).

Another significant reform was the overturning of a law in 2017 that banned women from marrying non-Muslim men. This decision represented a move towards greater personal freedom for women in Tunisia. Legal reforms have thus been instrumental in promoting women’s rights and participation in Middle Eastern societies. These changes have created a more favorable legal environment for women, addressing historical inequalities and enabling them to play a more active role in politics and public life (Hassan and Aboulenein, 2017).

Increased Political Participation

The increased political participation of women within the MENA is a significant aspect of the changing role of women in the region. Some middle eastern countries have implemented quota systems to ensure a minimum representation of women in legislative bodies. Women have also been appointed to key government positions, demonstrating their growing influence in shaping public policy. Young women are now increasingly involved in activism and politics, bringing fresh perspectives to the political landscape (Moghadam, 2005). This has led to them forming grassroot movements advocating for gender equality, political representation, and women’s rights. Civil society organizations have played a crucial role in promoting women’s role in politics and civil society.

Following independence from France in 1956, Tunisia under President Habib Bourguiba took progressive steps regarding women’s rights. The Code of Personal Status (CPS) was introduced in 1956, abolishing polygamy and granting women more rights in divorce and child custody. This era marked the beginning of women’s formal political participation, although it was limited (Arfaoui and Tchaïcha, 2014). Women gained the right to vote and stand for elections in 1959, and Tunisian women were among the first in the Arab world to enjoy such rights.

Under President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, women’s rights continued to advance in Tunisia, but the political landscape was authoritarian. The government used women’s rights as a tool to showcase Tunisia’s ‘modernity’ while suppressing political dissent and limiting genuine political participation. Women held positions in the government and parliament, but this was more symbolic as the regime controlled political life (Suad, 2018).

The 2011 Jasmine Revolution, part of the Arab Spring, was a turning point for women in Tunisia. Women actively participated in the protests that led to the overthrow of Ben Ali. The subsequent transition to democracy opened new avenues for political engagement. The 2014 Constitution guaranteed gender equality and the protection of women’s rights. This period saw an increase in the number of women in political leadership, both in elected offices and in civil society roles.

Tunisian women have continued to play a critical role in politics. Laws mandating gender parity on electoral lists have been implemented, leading to a significant presence of women in the parliament. Women’s rights organizations and activists have become influential in shaping policies, although challenges remain, including underrepresentation in high-level decision-making positions and persistent societal barriers (Moghadam, 2019). Throughout these phases, women’s political participation in Tunisia has been influenced by a combination of legal reforms, socio-cultural dynamics, and the broader political context. The Tunisian case stands out in the MENA region for its early and progressive approach to women’s rights, although the journey towards full gender parity and representation continues. However, traditional gender norms can still be a barrier to women’s active participation in politics. Women in politics may face threats, violence, and harassment, impacting their ability to participate freely (Alsamawi and Badr, 2009).

International Influences

International factors have played a significant role in shaping the changing role of women in politics in the broader middle eastern and MENA region. Aid from organizations such as the United Nations has played a huge part in promoting women’s rights and gender equality. A good example is the convention on the elimination of all forms of all discrimination (CEDAW); an international legal instrument that requires countries to eliminate discrimination against women and girls in all areas and promotes women’s and girls’ equal rights. There have also been diplomatic efforts to encourage and promote women’s participation (Arfaoui and Tchaïcha, 2014). The signing of international agreements like the Beijing Declaration has led to country-wide commitments to enhance female participation in politics.

The Middle East, as of the beginning of the 21st century, has been in the public eye more as a strong group of developing nations. But they have faced international scrutiny and pressure aimed at human rights and the governments have been encouraged to enact legal and policy reforms aimed at improving women’s status in these countries. In addition, political change has been severely driven as international actors have tied aid packages to women’s rights, providing incentives for change in the middle eastern political landscape (Hassan and Aboulenein, 2017). It is evident that with the development of the middle east as a powerful region in the world there has been a drive for change. International factors have been instrumental in raising awareness and pushing for reforms in the Middle East, encouraging the region to enhance women’s political participation.

Many places across the middle east and North African region (MENA) have seen changes take place in recent times and this has led to what can only be described as a chain reaction for the involvement and participation of women politically and socially in Arab societies. Countries that are famously known to have repression and segregation of women have now seen radical development in policies and a few examples of these are the events and changes that were seen in Saudi Arabia and Tunisia. Saudi Arabia has traditionally maintained strict gender segregation and limited women’s rights and participation in public life, however recent legal changes have allowed women the ability to drive their own cars and they have also had a more expanded role in the workforce (Suad, 2018). Even though it may seem like a very basic right has been given it marks a significant amount of progress for the country.

However, in Tunisia the development is a little different. Tunisia has been at the forefront of women’s rights and activism for the movement in the middle east and North Africa, with legal reforms dating back to the 1950s (Norwood, 2011). Many of these reforms have been implemented under the Personal Status Code and have worked to promote gender equality in various fields. The experiences of these countries demonstrate the diverse trajectories women’s political participation can take, influenced by historical, legal, and societal factors.

Conclusion

The changing role of women in middle eastern politics reflects the complex interplay of historical context, evolving societal norms, legal reforms, and international influences (Murphy, 1996). Whilst significant progress has been made in the region, challenges yet persist. Despite these advances, challenges remain. Women still face issues related to gender inequality, economic participation, and representation in high-level decision-making roles. However, the overall trend has been towards greater gender equality and empowerment of women in Tunisian society. Understanding the transformation is crucial for evaluating the prospects for greater gender equality and for creating policies that support women’s political participation in the middle east.

References

• Alsamawi, Ammar, and Nagwa Badr. “Education and Women’s Empowerment in the Middle East and North Africa.” Gender and Development, 2009.
• Arfaoui, Khedija. “Women’s empowerment: The case of Tunisia in the Arab Spring.” In Multiculturalism and Democracy in North Africa, pp. 159-175. Routledge, 2014.
• Arfaoui, Khedija, and Jane Tchaïcha. “Governance, women, and the new Tunisia.” Politics and Religion Journal 8, no. 1 (2014): 135-164.
• Baliamoune, Mina. “The making of gender equality in Tunisia and implications for development.” (2012).
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• Chekir, Hafidha. “Women, the Law, and the Family in Tunisia.” Gender and Development (1996): 43-46.
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• Hassan, Marwa, and Ahmed Aboulenein. “International Factors and Women’s Political Representation: An Analysis of Arab Countries.” Politics & Gender, 2017.
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Pragya is an altruistic and responsible young woman, enrolled in Grade 12 at The Heritage School, Rohini. A community-minded youth leader, Pragya has experience in organizing initiatives to improve her neighbourhood. She is passionate about global affairs and hopes to pursue this field for her undergraduate education.

Abstract
The New Education Policy (NEP) 2020, with its strong emphasis on multilingual education can have a profound impact on promoting diversity in India’s public education landscape. The policy’s guidelines around integrating multilingualism into the education system aims to contribute towards inclusivity, cultural preservation, and enhanced learning experiences for all Indian students. This research article explores how public school education can be modified to cater to the diverse needs of students in India with a focused approach towards multilingualism in school curriculums. It recommends following the guidelines of the New Education Policy (NEP) 2020 to achieve these objectives.

I. Introduction
The purpose of education is to provide children with a strong knowledge base and set of skills that enhance their tangible, employable abilities. They should also be empowered to become a responsible and contributing member of their communities and their country. With these goals in mind, the Indian school education landscape, characterized by its rich diversity and complex history has undergone several transformations. Over several decades, these transformations have led to the introduction of the New Education Policy (NEP) in 2020.

The New Education Policy (NEP-20), instituted on 29 July 2020, introduced a new foundation for the education system – the first of its kind in 34 years. This much-needed reformation was delivered to elevate the level of education offered to learners in India. Firstly, the government has stated its desire to conduct a complete overhaul of the public-school education system to cater to an ever-changing technological and globalized world (Tilak, 2012). Secondly, there is an increasing need to provide knowledge and skill sets concurrently to children with diverse backgrounds and socio-economic status. The guidelines have been formulated bearing in mind the Indian government’s Right to Education Act, 2009 which makes education accessible to every child in India. The Act contains within it the goal of providing free and compulsory education to children aged between 3-18 years (Mohanty, Panda, Pal, Menken and Garcia, 2010).

II. Brief Overview of the Indian School Education System
One can identify two different types of schools in India. The first category is government or public schools which are funded by the government. They are the most feasible option for many students in India, with a high percentage of students attending government schools. Although more affordable and accessible, they are often found lacking the infrastructure, resources, and quality of education provided by private schools (Hornberger and Vaish, 2009).

The latter category of schools is privately funded by the parents of children attending them and run independent of the government. Private schools often cater to the diverse and varying market needs of the educational sphere in India (Roy, 2020). As institutions, they have more autonomy in terms of curriculum design and teaching methods. Consequently, they are often seen to offer better infrastructure, resources, and quality of education. As they are influenced by market forces, private schools can be expensive and unaffordable to lower socio-economic households in India.

The New Education Policy (NEP 2020) emerged as the first holistic, inclusive, and participatory initiative aimed at reforming the outdated Indian education system. Seeing how over 47 million students were recorded dropping out by the 10th standard, this came as an extremely crucial overhaul; the number inspiring the likes of Justice JS Verma Commission, and the Education Commission to revise the education policy in place (Petrovic and Majumdar, 2010).

III. Multilingualism in Indian School Curriculums
The NEP 2020 is most beneficial for reforming the public-school education system in India. The guidelines focus on maintaining key learning elements of the current curriculum, while introducing a comparatively reduced rote-learning syllabus by stressing skills that include critical thinking and practical learning. The guidelines encourage the use of components such as empirical research, experiences, practical lessons, and stakeholder feedback for moving towards a move progressive, liberal school curriculum (NEP, 2020).

The NEP 2020 of India incorporates several key aspects that encourage multilingualism, reflecting a significant shift in the educational approach towards embracing linguistic diversity. This section of the research paper will analyze these specific aspects and discuss how they are expected to foster diversity and inclusivity in education.

Firstly, the NEP 2020 recommends that the medium of instruction up to at least Grade 5, preferably till Grade 8, should be the mother tongue or local language. This is based on evidence that children learn and grasp non-trivial concepts more quickly in their home language. This approach is expected to reduce the linguistic barriers to education, especially for students from non-Hindi and non-English speaking backgrounds, thereby promoting inclusivity.

Secondly, the policy reiterates the three-language formula, ensuring that students have the opportunity to learn three languages in their school curriculum. Importantly, it stipulates that no language will be imposed on any student, allowing for greater flexibility and respect for regional languages. By encouraging proficiency in regional languages, along with Hindi and English, the policy aims to foster national unity and mutual understanding among students of different linguistic backgrounds.

Furthermore, the NEP 2020 emphasizes the importance of classical languages like Sanskrit and local tribal languages. Schools and higher education institutions will offer courses on these languages, promoting their revival and preservation. This focus aids in preserving India’s rich linguistic heritage, fostering a sense of pride and deepening students’ understanding of diverse cultures.

To augment these changes, a major revamp should also be brought about in the exam and evaluation sector. The NEP recommends adopting a more holistic approach to gauge the child’s understanding and skill-level instead of a single theory paper per academic session that only assesses rote-memorization abilities. Increasingly, higher education institutions and workplaces have started valuing a well-rounded personality over just performing well academically (Hornberger and Vaish, 2009). In this regard, the NEP encourages the introduction of reforms in school assessment systems to make it more competency based. This would promote learning and development for every student and reduce the high-stakes aspects of high school public examinations.

The NEP recommends ways to incorporate and assess multiple aspects of a child’s abilities. The shift would be towards promoting critical and creative thinking aligned to the 21st century in classrooms, normalizing educational solutions like polls, research-based questions, skill-based quizzes, etc. (Tilak, 2012). Along with the development of these units, there would also be a comprehensive feedback system in place that conducts both state and national level surveys to monitor the learning outcomes and accordingly incorporate changes in the system.

The NEP 2020 further includes scope for students to be able to take pauses in their education instead of exiting it entirely, allowing mid-term dropouts to have the option of completing after a break. For instance, there is scope for 4-year programs to be undertaken in brackets of a 1-year for a certificate, 2 years for a diploma or 3 years for a bachelor’s degree (Kumar, 2021).

IV. Policy Recommendations
For the goals of the NEP 2020 to be achieved in all their intentions, intensive training for teachers in language pedagogy, particularly for teaching in bilingual or multilingual settings must be provided. This includes the creation of high-quality bilingual textbooks and teaching-learning materials (Kumar, Prakash and Singh, 2021). Well-trained teachers are crucial for effective multilingual education, ensuring that students from various linguistic backgrounds are taught effectively and inclusively.

The NEP 2020 also suggests changes in assessment methods, allowing students to take exams in their home language wherever possible. This is a significant step away from the dominance of English and Hindi in public school examinations (Mohanty, 2008). This reform will level the playing field for students from diverse linguistic backgrounds, ensuring that language is not a barrier to demonstrating their understanding and knowledge in assessments.

Additionally, technology can play a role in promoting multilingualism in education. Initiatives like digital platforms and online resources in multiple languages can facilitate access to educational materials across different languages. AI-Powered Language Learning Apps that use artificial intelligence to adapt to each student’s learning pace could offer lessons in multiple Indian languages. Another example is that of Virtual Reality (VR) Language Immersion, which can simulate immersive environments where students can practice different languages in real-life scenarios. Finally, a speech recognition software for language practice can provide instant feedback on language proficiency and fluency, allowing students to correct their mistakes in real-time (Meganathan, 2015). Hence, technological innovations in education can play a vital role in reaching students in remote areas, ensuring that language and geography does not limit access to quality learning modules.

An ideal educational institution that implements all or most of these recommendations could be a metropolitan city school in Hyderabad with students from diverse linguistic backgrounds, including Telugu, Urdu, and English speakers. This school would offer a choice between Telugu, Urdu, and English as the first language, with the other two languages taught as second and third languages. Training teachers in multilingual pedagogies. The outcome of such a school would be increased linguistic tolerance and cultural exchange among students. Students would gain proficiency in three languages, enhancing their cognitive flexibility and future career prospects (Dash, 2000).

V. Conclusion
The historical evolution of the Indian education system reflects a journey from traditional, culturally rooted methods to a system influenced by colonial policies, and finally to an approach seeking to integrate global best practices while reaffirming its commitment to India’s diverse heritage. The NEP 2020 stands at this juncture, promising a significant transformation in addressing the contemporary educational needs of a diverse and pluralistic society. With its emphasis on multilingualism, the NEP 2020 guidelines represent a progressive step towards an education system that not only acknowledges but also celebrates linguistic diversity. By integrating these aspects, the government’s policy aims to create an inclusive educational environment where every student feels represented and valued, irrespective of their linguistic background (Mohanty, Panda, Pal, Menken and Garcia, 2010). This approach is expected to enhance cognitive development, cultural empathy, and national cohesion, thereby contributing significantly to the richness and diversity of Indian education.

VI. References
– Hornberger, Nancy, and Viniti Vaish. “Multilingual language policy and school linguistic practice: globalization and English‐language teaching in India, Singapore and South Africa.” Compare 39, no. 3 (2009): 305-320.
– Dash, M. Education in India: Problems and Perspectives. Atlantic Publishers & Dist, 2000.
– Kumar, Alok. “New education policy (NEP) 2020: A roadmap for India 2.0.” University of South Florida M3 Center Publishing 3, no. 2021 (2021): 36.
– Kumar, Kishore, Ajai Prakash, and Krishanveer Singh. “How National Education Policy 2020 can be a lodestar to transform future generation in India.” Journal of Public Affairs 21, no. 3 (2021): e2500.
– Meganathan, Ramanujam. “Medium of instruction in school education in India: Policy, status and demand for english medium education.” Indian Educational 53, no. 2 (2015): 1-27.
– Mohanty, Ajit K. “Multilingual education in India.” Encyclopedia of language and education 5 (2008): 165-174.
– Mohanty, Ajit, Minati Panda, Rashmi Pal, K. Menken, and O. Garcia. “Language policy in education and classroom practices in India.” Negotiating language policies in schools: Educators as policymakers (2010): 211-231.
– Petrovic, John, and Sikharini Majumdar. “Language planning for equal educational opportunity in multilingual states: The case of India.” International Multilingual Research Journal 4, no. 1 (2010): 1-19.
– Roy, S. (2020, August 4). “National Education Policy NEP 2020: Key points you need to know.” Awesome India. https://www.awesomeindia.in/national-education-policy-nep-2020/
– Tilak, Jandhyala BG. “Higher education policy in India in transition.” Economic and Political
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